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The objects of cognition are the categories of Kanada mentioned in Vaisheshika-sutra 58 A category is called padartha and the entire universe is reduced to six or seven padarthas. Padartha literally means 'the meaning of a word'. A padartha is an object which can be thought and named 59 All things which exist, which can be cognized and named,60 in short, all objects of experience." The categories of Vaisesika attempt a complete analysis of the objects of knowledge. These categories are the metaphysical classification of all knowable objects. 58. 59. 60. 61. dharmavisesaprasutad dravyagunakarmasamanyavisesa samavayanam padarthanam sadharamyavaidhrmabhyam tattvaksanannihsreyasam // Vaisheshika-sutra 1.1.4. Indian Philosophy Vol II. p. 183. astitva, abhidheyatva, jneyatva. Prasastapada-bhashya p.16. as quoted ibid. p. 184 pramativisayah padarthah. Saptapadarthi p. 2. }

183 Originally the Vaisesika believed in the six categories and the seventh that of abhava or negation, was added later on. Though Kanada himself speaks of abhava, yet he does not give it the status of a category to which it was raised only by the later Vaisesikas. The seven padarthas are - i) substance (dravya), ii) quality (guna), iii) action (karma), iv) generality (samanya), v) particularity (visesa), vi. inherence (samavaya) and vii) non-being (abhava). In Bhasapariccheda also we find these seven padarthas. 62 According to Kesava Misra also there are six objects of cognition. They are substance, quality, action, generality, speciality and inherence. Cinnambhatta says list of positive objects are given not 'negation' at all in this 63 context. Kesava Misra then mentions that although the instruments of cognitions are included within the six objects of true cognition, still they are discussed separately because of their importance. a. Substance: Substance or dravya is defined as the substratum where actions and qualities inhere and which is the coexistence material cause of the composite things produced from it. 64 Substance signifies the selfsubsistence, the absolute and independent nature of things. It is the substratum 62. 63. 64. ete ca padartha.. vaisesika-prasiddhah, naiyayikanamapyaviruddhah. Bhasapariccheda p.18. vidhimukhapratyaya vedyataya bhavarupah sadeveti vivaksita. Tarkabhasa-prakasika p. 208. kriyagunavat samavayikaranamiti dravyalaksanam. Vaisheshika-sutra 1.1.15.

184 of qualities and actions. The dravyas are nine and include material as well as spiritual substances. The nine substances are: earth (ksiti), water (ap), fire (tejas), air (vayu), ether (akasa), time (kala), space (dik), spirit (atman) and mind (manas). Kesava Misra gives two different definitions of substance. The first definition is that it is an inherent cause. The second definition is that it is the substratum of attributes. He also accepts nine substances, earth, water etc. 65 Earth possesses colour, taste, smell and touch. According to Annambhatta earth is endowed with smell. It is of two kinds, indestructible 鈥� 66 (nitya) and destructible (anitya). The indestructible earth is of the form of atom (paramanu); the destructible is of the nature of an effect (karya). It is, again, of three varieties, according as it is distinguished into 'organism' (sarira), "sense-organ' (indriya) and visaya. The first variety of earth is ours and the others; the second variety is the cogniser of 'smell', is the olfactory organ and is located at the tip of the nose. The third variety of earth is common clay, stone etc. Visvanatha also accepts earth as smell. He says that white, blue etc. colours exist in the earth. 67 Kesava Misra defines earth in the following way - 'earth is that which possesses the generality earth-ness.' It occurs in the form of sense-organ nose, 65. 66. 67. ruparasagandhasparsavati prthivi. Ibid. 2.1.1. gandhavati prthivi. sa dvividha nitya anitya ca. nitya paramanurupa, anitya karyarupa. punah trividha sarirendriyavisayabhedat. Tarkasamgraha 10. ksitirgandhaheturnanarupavati mata. Bhasapariccheda k.35.

185 body and such things like clay, stone, trees etc. It has fourteen qualities viz. colour, taste, smell, touch, number, dimension, separateness, conjunction, disjunction, remoteness, proximity, weight, fluidity and tendency. He shows two forms of earth - eternal and non-eternal. 68 The eternal consists of atoms 69 and the non-eternal is of the form of various products. In both kinds the qualities are non-eternal and caused by baking or paka. Paka is caused by the application of heat. Paka destroys the former colour etc. of the thing and creates new one. 70 71 Water possesses colour, taste and touch and are fluid and viscid. " The colour, taste and touch are respectively white, sweet and cool only. Fluidness is constitutional but viscidity is by nature or essential. According to Annambhatta water is endowed with cold touch. 72 Like earth it is also two kinds, nitya or indestructible and anitya or destructible. The indestructible water is of the nature of atom, the destructible is of the nature of an effect. Again it is of three varieties, - according as it is distinguished into organism, sense-organ and object. Water as organism is in the realm of God, Varuna; water as sense-organ is the cogniser of taste, is the gustatory organ and is located at the tip of the tongue; water as object is river, sea etc. Visvanatha 68. sa ca dvividha, nitya'nitya ca.Tarkabhasa p.174. 69. nitya paramanurupa/ anitya karyarupa/ Ibid. 70. 71. tena prthivyah purvarupadayo nasyanti, anye janyante iti pakajah // Ibid. ruparasasparsavatyah apo dravah snigdhah. Vaisheshika-sutra 2.1.2. 72. sitasparsavatyah apah. Tarkasamgraha 11.

186 follows Kanada while giving definition of water. According to him water is endowed with cold touch and the colour of the water is white and taste is sweet. 73 According to Kesava Misra water is that which has the generality 'water-ness'. It consists of the sense of taste, water-body, rivers, oceans, snow, hail etc. It also has the fourteen qualities mentioning for earth, but excluding smell and including viscidity. It is also of two kinds, eternal and non-eternal. Colour etc. abiding in eternal water atoms are eternal and gross water is noneternal. 74 Fire possesses colour and touch. 1* According to Annambhatta light is zui endowed with hot feel. He also mentions two divisions of light - indestructible 75 and destructible. Visvanatha also accepts the above definition and adds its colour as shining white" 76 According to Kesava Misra, light is that which has the generality lightness. It consists of the visual sense-organ, light-body, the sun, gold, fire, lighting and similar things. It has eleven qualities, colour, touch, number, dimension, separateness, conjunction, disjunction, remoteness, proximity, liquidity and tendency. It is divided in two forms eternal and non-eternal as 73. varnah suklorasa-sparsau jale madhura-sitalau/ * snehastatra dravatvamtu samsiddhikamudahrtam// Bhasapariccheda k. 39. 74. tejo rupasparsavat. Vaisheshika-sutra 2.1.3. 75. 76. usnasparsavat tejah, tat ca ...... karyarupam.Tarkasamgraha 12. usnasparsastejasastu syadrupam suklabhasvaram. Bhasapariccheda k.41.

187 similar to that of water. It is of four kinds: " (i) light in which both colour and touch are manifested It is seen in such things as light of the sun, masses of fire etc. (ii). that in which both are unmanifested This is occurs in the visual sense-organ. (iii) third kind is that in which colour is unmanifested and touch is manifested It occurs in the fire in heated water. (iv) that in which colour is manifested while touch is unmanifested This variety is that seen in the halo around a brightly burning lamp. Air possesses touch. 78 Annambhatta says, air is that which is endowed 79 with feel without colour. Again it is of two types indestructible and destructible. Another two varieties are also there. First is organism, which is in the realm of the God vayu. Second is the sense- organ. It is the cogniser of feel, is the tactical-sense pervading the whole body. Third is the object. It is the cause of the tremor of trees etc. Coursing inside the body, air is life. Visvanatha also in same view in this regard. Air, according to Kesava Misra, is that substance which is connected with "air-ness'. So, it consists of tactile sense-organ, air-body, breath of animals etc. It has nine qualities i.e. touch, number, dimension, separateness, 77. taccaturvidham; udbhutarupasparsam, anudbhutarupasparsam, anudbhutarupaodbhutasparsam, udbhutarupanudbhutasparsam ceti. Tarkabhasa p.176. 78. sparsavan vayuh. Vaisheshika-sutra 2.1.4. 79. ruparahita sparsavan vayuh. Tarkasamgraha 13.

188 conjunction, disjunction, remoteness, proximity and velocity. This is inferred by touch and can not be seen. There are two kinds of air eternal and non- eternal, the former consists of air atoms and the latter the products. Theses four substances have certain similarities in their being eternal and non-eternal. The eternal is consisting of atoms and non-eternal of the products. The non eternal variety of each is again classified as sarira, indriya and visaya. Kesava Misra indirectly mentions these divisions when he mentions what each substance consists of. It is only these four that are capable of being produced and therefore, Kesava Misra discusses the process of their creation and destruction in this regard. We will discuss the process of creation and dissolution in later part of this chapter. 80 Ether is not atomic but infinite and eternal. According to Annambhatta, that which has sound for its quality is ether. It is one, ubiquitous and eternal. Kesava Misra defines it in the following way, 'ether is the substance which has sound as its distinctive quality'. It possesses six qualities, viz. sound, number, dimension, separateness, conjunction and disjunction. It is one, allpervading, eternal and inferable from the reason of having sound. It is inferred from this reason by a type of inference called parisesa, a kind of elimination.It is like this. Sound is a special quality. Being a quality it must subsist in a qualified substance. This substance can not be any one out of earth, water, 80. (a) akasasya tu vijneya sabdo vaisesiko gunah. Bhasapariccheda k.44. (b) sabdagunakam akasam. tat ca ekam vibhu nityam ca.Tarkasamgraha 14.

189 light, air, and soul as sound is grasped by the ear. The qualities abiding in these five are not cognized by the ear, as is the case with colour etc. and sound is grasped by the ear. Nor is it a quality of time, space or mind as sound is a special quality. Therefore, a qualified substance other than these eight should be accepted as the substratum of sound. This substance is called ether. It is only one as there is no proof to suppose different varieties of it. A single ether satisfies all logical purposes. Being one there is no generality akasatva. It is all-pervading, which means that it has the greatest dimension, because its effect is felt everywhere. 81 These five (earth, water, fire, air and ether) are called elements and are physical. Each of them possesses a particular quality which distinguishes it from the rest. The peculiar qualities of earth, water, fire, air and ether are smell, taste, colour, touch and sound respectively which are sensed by five external senses. 82 Time and space are like akasa, imperceptible substances each of which is one, eternal and all-pervading. Time is the ground for usages like 'past' etc.83 Visvanatha says that 'time is generating that which is to be produced 284. Space is, according to Annambhatta ground for usages like east etc. 81. 85 vibhu cakasam/paramamahatparimanavadityarthah / sarvatra tatkaryopalabdheh / Tarkabhasa p 185. 82. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy p.177. 83. Tarkasamgraha 15. 84. Bhasapariccheda K.45. 85. Tarkasamgraha 16.

190 Kesava Misra says that time is to be inferred from remoteness and proximity which are contrary to those created by space. It has the qualities number, dimension, separateness, conjunction and disjunction. It is one, eternal and all-pervading. Cinnambhatta also supports Kesava Misra's view that time is all-pervading and inferred from remoteness proximity etc. 8掳 Space is to be inferred from the notions of remoteness and proximity contrary to those caused by time. It has the qualities same as time. 86 Mind is a substance, which is the internal sense for the perception of the individual soul and its qualities, like pleasure, pain. It is atomic and can not therefore, be perceived Annambhatta gives the definition of mind in this way, 'the organ that is the instrument of direct awereness of pleasure etc. is the mind. And because of its uniform association with a soul, it is infinite in number. It is again of the nature of an atom and is eternal." 87 According to Kesava Misra mind is that substance which has the generality mind-ness. It is atomic in size and is always connected with the soul. It is an internal sense by which internal attributes like pleasure etc. are perceived It has the eight qualities beginning with number. Through contact with it the external sense-organs produced the cognition of objects and therefore mind is a general cause for all cognitions. It has the magnitude of an 86. vibhutve sati digasamaveta paratvaparatvasamavayi karanadhikaranam kala iti. Tarkabhasa-prakasika p.225. 87. sukhadyupalabdhi...... nityam ca. Tarkasamgraha 18.

191 atom, it can not be perceived but has to be inferred Mind is eternal. The external sense-organs reveal their objects only when they are in contact with the manas. So mind is an instrument of all perceptions, external and internal. b) Quality: It is the second category. Unlike substance it can not exists independently by itself and possesses no quality or action. It inheres in a substance and depends for its existence on the substance and is not a constitutive cause of anything. It is called an independent reality because it can be conceived, thought and named independently of a substance where it inheres. Therefore, the qualities are called objective entities. They are not necessarily eternal. They include both material and mental qualities. They are a static and permanent feature of a substance. It is defined by Kanada as 'that which inheres in a substance, which does not possess quality or action, which does not produce any composite thing, and which is not the cause of 88 conjunction and disjunction like an action.' Kanada mentions seventeen qualities, to which seven more are added by Prasastapada. These twenty-four qualities are recognized by the Nyaya-Vaisesika school. They include material as well as spiritual properties. Annambhatta gives the list of twenty-four qualities. These are, colour (rupa), taste (rasa), smell (gandha), touch (sparsa), number (samkhya), dimention (parimana), separateness (prthaktva), conjunction (samyoga), disjunction (vibhaga), remoteness (paratva), proximity (a-paratva), heaviness (gurutva), fluidity (dravatva), viscosity (sneha), sound (sabda), cognition (buddhi), happiness (sukha), misery 88. dravyasrayyagunavan samyogavibhagesvakaranamanapeksa iti gunalaksanam. Vaisheshika-sutra 1.1.16.

192 (duhkha), desire (iccha), aversion (dvesa), volition (prayatna), merit (dharma), demerit (a-dharma) and tendency (samskara). Kesava Misra also accepts these aforesaid qualities. According to him, 89 colour is that special quality which is cognized by the eye alone. It abides in earth, water and light. In earth it is of various kinds like white, black etc. brought about by baking and so non-eternal. In water atom and light atom it is eternal and in their products non-eternal. The colour in light is dazzling white and that in water non-dazzling white. In both it is not due to baking. Taste is cognized by the tongue. It abides in earth and water. In earth there are all the six varieties, sweet, sour, salt, pungent, astringent and bitter, which are caused by baking. In water, there is only sweet test. Smell is cognized by nose. It abides only in earth and is non-eternal. Two types of smell are there, fragrant and non-fragrant. Touch is cognized by the tactile sense alone. It subsists in earth, water, light and air. It is of three kinds cold, hot and tepid. Cold touch abides in water, hot in light, and tepid in earth and air. It is non-eternal in earth, but eternal in the atoms of the other three and non-eternal in their products. Number serves as the cause for expressing one, two etc. It extends from one to a hundred thousand billion (parardha). Dimension is the cause for expressing the notion of measurement. It is of four kinds, atomic or small, great, short and long. The smallest dimension in the atom and the greatest one existing in ether etc. are eternal. Separateness is the cause for expressing one thing as separate from another. It is of two kinds, separateness from one thing, i.e. eternal and separateness from two or more things. The second is always 89. tatra rupam caksurmatragrahyo visesagunah/Tarkabhasa p.193.

193 non-eternal. Conjunction is the cause for expressing the notion that two things are in contact. Disjunction is the cause for expressing the notion that two things are disjoined Remoteness and proximity are the causes for expressing the notions of objects being distant or near by. They are of two kinds, those brought about by relation to space, and those brought about by relation to time. Weight is the non-inherent cause for the first step in the process of falling. It subsists in earth and water. It is said that 'the falling of a substance is caused by weight in the absence of conjunction, velocity or 90 effort. Fluidity is the non-inherent cause for the first step of flowing. It subsists in earth, light and water. Viscosity is oiliness. It subsists in water alone. Like weight it is coeval with the substance which constitutes its substratum. Sound is cognized by ear. It is the specific quality of ether. Sound at first arising from the place of the drum produces another sound either in the form of water-ripples or in the form of filaments of the Kadamba flower. This second sound produces another and this in turn another. In this manner the last sound that raps the ear is heard. The opponent theory is that sound do not reach the ear. For then one would not be able to know whether the sound comes from the east or west or from any other direction. Cinnambhatta replies that it is only because the hearer enquires about the directions that he can know them. If a hearer does not enquire, then he does not know the directions of the sound. Then he has a doubt about the directions from which the sound is coming. This establishes that eyes and ear can know objects only by reaching them. Cognition is that by which objects are made known as we have 90. Samyogabhave gurutvat patanam. Vaisheshika-sutra 5.1.7.

194 discussed before. Pleasure is satisfaction and desirable for all. The six qualities, cognition, pleasure, pain, desire, hatred and effort are perceptible by the mind. Merit and demerit are not perceptible they are known from the Vedas as well as as through inference. Regarding merit and demerit Cinnambhatta says that merit is the general cause of happy-ness; and demerit is the particular cause of misery. 91 Faculty or samskara is of three kinds, velocity, mental impression and elasticity. Of these velocity subsists in the five substances, earth, water, light, air and mind; and it is the caused by motion. Impression abides only in the soul. It is produced by experience and is the cause for recollection. Elasticity subsists in certain tangible substances. It is that quality which, when its substratum such as a bow is bent or distorted, helps in bringing it to its original shape. c) Action: The third category is karma or action. It is neither substance nor quality but an independent category by itself. It belongs to and inheres in a substance and can not exist separately from it. But while a quality is a static and permanent feature of a substance, an action is a dynamic and transient feature of it. Action is said to be five kinds, (i) upward movement (utksepana), (ii) downward movement (avaksepana), (iii) contraction (akuncana), (iv) expansion (prasarana) and (v) going (gamana). 91. sukhasya sadharanakaranamdharmo duhkhasya asadharana karanamadharma ityarthah. Tarkabhasa-prakasika p.244.

195 According to Kesava Misra action is of the form of motion and like qualities subsists only in substances. He also accepts the aforesaid five kinds of action. He says that whirling and other kinds of activity come under 'going'. d) Generality: Generality or samanya is class-concept, class essence or universal. It is the common character of the things which fall under the same class. Kanada says, 'generality and particularity depend upon the intellect to indicate their existence.' They are not conceptual construct, but ontological entities. It is the objective basis of the notion of common characters among many individuals which is quite different from one 92 another. It is natural and not accidental. It is one, though the individuals in which it resides are many. It is eternal, though the individuals in which it inheres are subject to birth and death, production and destruction. It is common to many individuals. There is the class-essence of the universal of man, called 'man-ness' which inheres in all individual man. Similarly 'cowness' inheres in all individual cows. Only one generality subsists in all individuals of a class. Annambhatta sub-divides it, the wide and the narrow generality. 93 The wide generality has been defined as the generality which has a large coverage. The 'narrow generality' is the generality that exists in a smaller number of particulars. Visvanatha also accepts these sub-divisions. The generality resides in all substances, in all qualities and in all actions. Vaisheshika-sutra 1.2.3. Prasastapada-bhashya p.11. Nyayakandali p 11. 94 92. 93. Tarkasamgraha 6. 94. Bhasapariccheda k. 8.

196 According to Kesava Misra generality is the cause for comprehensive class notions. It abides in substances, qualities and activities. It is eternal, only one and inheres in many things." Two kinds of generality is mentioned here also, viz. the highest and the lower. The highest form is 'existence' as it inheres in all the three, substance etc. The lower generality consists of substance-ness, quality-ness, etc. and inheres in less number of things. e) Particularity: The fifth category is Visesa. It enables us to perceive things as different from one another. Every individual is a particular, a single and a unique thing different from all others. It has got a uniqueness of its own which constitutes its particularity. It is opposed to generality. Kanada defines particularity as the ultimate distinguishing feature of an eternal substance, which is known by its discrimination from the other eternal substances. It depends upon the intellect to indicate its existence. Particularities are the final distinctive character of eternal substances. They subsist in the eternal substances, the atoms, ether, time, space, self and manas. Particularities do not require other particularities to distinguish them from one another, because it would lead to infinite regress. Composite noneternal substances are distinguished from one another by their parts, qualities, actions, conjunction with other substances, and the like. A white cow is distinguished by her quality. A cow moving fast is distinguished by her action. 95. 96. nityamekamanekanugatanca. Tarkabhasa p.213. Vaisheshika-sutra 1.2.3 and 6.

197 Annambhatta says that visesa, which reside in the eternal substances are infinite in number." According to Kesava Misra particularity subsists in eternal substances and is the sole cause of their exclusive notions. The eternal substances are the five, beginning with ether together with the atoms of the other four, i.e. earth, water, light, and air. f) Inherence: Inherence or samavaya is different from conjunction or samyoga which is a separable and transient relation and is a quality. Samavaya is an independent category. Kanada calls it the relation between a material cause and its effect. 98 Prasastapada defines it as 'the relationship subsisting among things that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained, and being the basis of the idea, ,99 "this is in that"." The things related to samavaya are inseparably connected It is eternal because its production would involve infinite regress. It is imperceptible and is inferred from the inseparable relation of two things. The things which are inseparably connected are these: the part and the whole, the quality and the substance, the action and the substance, the particular and the universal, the visesa and the eternal substance. 100 97. Tarkasamgraha 7. 98. Vaisheshika-sutra 8.2.26. 99. ayutasiddhanam adharyadharabhutanami yah sambandha ihapratyayahetuh sa samavayah. Prasastapada-bhashya p.14. 100. Tarkasamgraha 84.

198 Kesava Misra also says that inherence is the relation between two inseparable things. Regarding inseparables he says that when two things are so intimately connected such that one subsists in the other so long as the latter is not destroyed they are called inseparables. Here, Kesava Misra opposes the objection of the Buddhist. Bauddha says that inherence is not correct as there is nothing like a 'whole' apart from its 'parts'. For instance, an object called jar is nothing but an aggregation of many atoms arranging themselves in some particular form. This is answered as follows: 'the jar is a single gross entity' is the cognition arising out of perception. This cognition does not objectify the atoms which are many, which are not gross and which are not perceptible by the sense-organs. Nor can this cognition be said to be invalid as there is no sublating judgement to contradict it. g) Negation: The seventh category, abhava is a negative category. Kanada does not mention it as a separate category. It is added afterwards. The other categories are regarded as absolute, but this category is relative in its conception. Negation necessarily presupposes some affirmation. The Vaisesika, being a realist, believes that just as knowledge is different from the object known which exists independently of that knowledge and necessarily points to some object, similarly knowledge of negation is different from the thing negated and necessarily points to some object which is negated Absence of an object and knowledge of its absence are different. 101 101. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy p.182.

199 Annambhatta enumerates the four kinds of abhava 'prior absence' (pragabhava), 'destruction' (pradhvamsabhava), 'absolute absence' (atyantabhava) and 'reciprocal absence' (anyonyabhava). Kesava Misra divides abhava into two kinds: relational negation and mutual negation. The relational negation again is of three types: antecedent negation, subsequent negation or destruction and absolute negation. Antecedent negation is that which exists in the cause before the product comes into existence, e.g. the negation of cloth in the threads before cloth is produced It has no beginning as it has no origin, but it has an end. It ends when the thing is produced 102 Subsequent negation is the absence of a thing in its cause after the thing itself is destroyed It has a beginning but has no end; e.g. the absence of the jar in its two halves after it is broken, which is brought about by striking it with a bar or some such thing. Absolute negation is the non-existence of a thing which can be predicated in respect of all times, past, present and future; e.g. the non-existence of colour in air. It is both beginningless and endless. Mutual negation is that which denies the identity of two things, e.g. a jar is not a cloth.