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The Visnudharmottara Purana elucidates the process, and the strong points in paintings. 8 It tells about the origin of painting. The sage Narayana created it for the betterment of the people. The great sage in order to confuse the heavenly damsels (who had come to tempt him) drew a beautiful woman on the ground with the juice of mango. Out of this picture was created the beautiful 7. V.S.Agrawala, op.cit. p Intro VII 8. visnudharmottara purana - 35.15. atah param pravaksyami citrasutram tavanagha | urvasim srjatah purve citrasutram nrpatmaja || narayanena munina lokanam hitakamyaya | praptanam vamcanarthaya devastrinam mahamunih || sahakararasam grhaya urvyam cakre varastriyam | citrena sa tato jata rupayukta varampsarah || yam drstva vriditah sarva jagamustah devayositah | evam mahamunih krtva citram laksanasamyutam || grahayamasa sa tada visvakarmanamacyutam | yatha nrtye tatha citre trailokyanukrtih smrta ||

184 apsaras. She was Urvasi. Looking at her, the heavenly damsels were ashamed and went away. Thus the perfect Citra was created by the great sage. Then he made Visvakarma learn the art. "This mythical account is One is that the code of significant in two points. painting is based upon an actual painting and secondly that it was taught to Visvakarma, the divine architect. This indicates that the art of painting was practised by persons who were also builders. It shows the connection of painting and sculpture with architecture in earlier times and confirms the view of Herbert Spencer on the evolution of these space arts. He says that in the earlier stages of human culture, the arts of architecture, sculpture and painting were practised together and it was only later on that they got differentiated. The account of the origin is followed by the relation of painting and sculpture with dancing Nrtta and Citra are imitative or representative of the objects of 10 three worlds (Trailokyanukrti). Naturally, therefore, 9. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, Vol. 10, p.370. 10. visnudharmottara purana 35.5. yatha nrtye tatha citre trailokyanukrtih smrta ||

185 Drstis (eye-sights), Bhavas (moods), gestures and handposes described in Nitya would hold good in citra also. The difference between Nrtya and Citra is the pramanas (measurements and proportions). Pramana is of specific importance in the arts of space, painting and sculpture, just as rhythm (Tala and laya) in time-arts of music and dancing. The Visnudharmottara Purana tells us eight Gunas or Nature of paintings, sthana (position), 11 pramana (proportionate measurement), Bhulamba (perpendicular reaching to the ground), Madhuratva (sweetness), Vibhaktata,(distinctness), Sadrasya (semblance), Ksaya (diminution) and Vrddhi (augmentation)." The four elements of painting are rekha, vartana, - 12 bhusana, and varna. * Vartana or shading is of three kinds binduja, patra, and raikhika. The first is stippling, the second cross-hatching and the third fine lineshading. Rekha may be interpreted as line or better, the harmony of lines in a figure. Vartana according to 11. focuremfcar gem 43.10. sthanam pramanam bhulambah madhuratvam vibhaktaya | sadrsyam ksayavrddhi ca gunastakamidam smrtam || 12. tadeva - 41.10 rekha ca vartana caiva bhusanam varnameva ca | vijneyam manujasrestha citrakarmaiva bhusana ||

| 186 what is said above would mean smearing or application of colour. 鈽慖t implies probably proficiency in depicting emotions through brush-work. Varna, means of course, colour. Bhusana would mean that the act of painting itself is the act of creating beauty. These four different elements are appreciated by different classes of persons. "The teachers or preceptors admire rekha, harmony of lines in a figure and the experts vartana, delination of emotion (bhava) through brush work. Women want bhusana, decoration or beauty in picture, while the ordinary people look for rich colours. Therefore, in painting, efforts should be made to include all these elements so that it would be appreciated by all. 13 14 The best picture was with the minimum of drawing, as such figures suggest their full form. This is the greatness of powerful line-drawing. Immoderate decoration and loud colouring were almost reckoned a blemish. 13. visnudharmottara purana - 41.11. rekham prasamsantyacarya vartanam ca vicaksanah | striyom bhusanamicchanti varnadayamitare janah || 14. rajasekhara vidvasalabhanjika - kramaparinatarekha mamsalairangabhagai- 1.36. laghurapi likhiteyam drsyate purnamurtih | ayamapi sukumarah sattvikanam nivesa- scaturamasrnamugdham bhavamaviskaroti ||

187 In enumerating Citragunas and Citra-dosas, i.e., merits and demerits in paintings, an excess of any; was considered 15 a blemish. In Somesvara's Manasollasa Suksmarekha is more important in the picture. If we, however, take the clue from Suksmarekha, the meaning might be that, merely drawing a line in the form of a human figure is no art. This is supported by the words Vidyunnirmanakusalaih. Varnapurna might imply proficiency in harmonizing the colour. Rasa is expressed in painting. Incidental to the treatment of Rasa, there are interesting references. as to where particular Rasas should be depicted (and where not to be.) These remarks seem to embody a tradition which must have a considerable basis in actual practice. The subject of classification of Citra is to be found in other works dealing with Citra. Somesvara, in his Manasollasa divides Citra into three types, namely Viddha, Aviddha and Bhavacitra. 16 The meaning of 15. pragalbhairbhavakaistajjnaih suksmarekha visaradaih | vidhunnirmanakusalaih patralekhanakovidaih || varnapuranadaksaisca viranai ca krtasramaih | | citrakairlekhyeccitram nanarasasamudbhavam || 3.1.139-140. 16. supramanam tatha vidvamavi bhavacitrakam | rasadhulimgatam proktam manasollasapustakai || 3.1.943.

188 Rasadhuligatam probably is that these three types should be drawn either with liquid colours or with powdered colours. Somesvara defines Dhulicitra as a painting 17 with very high colours. The other three varieties After which seem to refer to style are more interesting. saying that the innumerable creatures cannot be described, he advises that they should be painted according to 18 their respective Rupa. He defines Viddha as a picture in which the semblance is painted as if it were an image 19 reflected in a mirror. Aviddha is defined as a mere sketch drawn with the words 'I am drawing casually' and which is painted without a set purpose. 20 Bhavacitra is defined as that type of painting where a Rasa such as Srngara is revealed to a person by mere observation, 21 and which creates wonder in his mind. Dhuli-Citra is described as one made with powdered colours and drawn on the ground as a temporary picture. 17. saduccairvarnakairlekhyam dhulicitram vidurbudhah || 3.1.903. 18. tattadrupanusarena puraniyastu citrakaih || 3.1.174 19. sadrsyam likhyate yattu darpana pratibimbavat || 3.1.939. 20. akasmikam likhamiti yadanudddisca likhyate | akaramatrasampanne tadavidvamiti smrtam || 3.1.940. 21. srmgaradiraso yatra darsanadeva gamyate | bhavacitram tadakhyatam citrakautukakarakam || 3.1.142.

189 Ancient Indian literature discusses all types of paintings. In painting, kings should be drawn like gods. The sages should have matted locks of hair and black antelope skin as upper grament. They should be emaciacted but full of lustre. The Gandharvas should be done without crowns but with crests. The Brahmins full of Brahman-lustre should wear white clothes. The Ministers, and Purohitas should be shown with all kinds of ornaments but not with gaudy decorations. done without crown but with turbans. They should be "Daityas should have frowning looks, round eyes and terrific faces. Their dress should be arrogant. They should hold many Sastras (weapons)."22 In this way, Somesvara discusses Vidyadharas, Kinnaras, Raksasas, Yaksas, Pisacis and so on (3.1.733-873). Kubja (hunch-backed) Vamanika (dwarfish), and old women should not be shown beautiful, old Kancuki should be shown in the retinue of the royal harem. 22. danava vikrtakara bhrkutikutilananah | kiritena ca kubjena manditasastrapanayah || damstrakaralavadana bhrkutikutileksanah | nanarupa mahakaya nanasastradharastatha || 3.1.845-846.

190 of an army. Visnudharmottara Purana tells us about the commander "The commander of an army should be shown in Citra, strong, proud, tall, with broad shoulders, hands and neck, with big head, strong chest, prominent nose and broad chin, with a forehead having three wavy lines, hawk-like eyes and with firm hips. Soldiers generally should be painted with frowns on their faces. The foot-soldier should be done going forth bearing or using weapons 23 and so on. Horses, elephants etc. (should be shown according 24 to their descriptions. The dress of the horse-riders and charioteers should be of the northern type and the dress of the bards should be showy. The elephant-riders should have swarthy complexions. Their hair should be tied in matted locks and they should wear ornaments (3.1.875-936). 23. visnudharmottara puranah- 42.32-33. pinaskandhabhujagivah parimanena cocchritah | tritaramgalalatasca syenadrstirmahakatih || drptascitravida karyah senayah patirurjitah | yodhah karya maharaja prayaso bhrkutimukhah || 24. citrakarmopayogartha hayalaksma pravaksyate | ayamacca tathautsedha dvistaratparinahatah || 3.1.875. gajasya vaksyate laksma sutramananusaratah | gajasya laksanam vaksye pramanana pramanitam || 3.1.913.

191 The forms of invisible entities have been described The repreon the analogy of things found in the world. sentations of observable objects should be made as complete as possible because in painting exact likeness is very important. Men of different countries should be shown after knowing their form, dress and colour or caste (varna). Their seat, bed, conveyance and dress should be drawn after knowing carefully their country, employment, position and occupation. The Visnudharmottara Purana tells: "The sky should be shown with its natural colour and full of birds and the celestial dome should be shown with stars. Earth should be shown with forest regions and watery regions with their distinguishing traits. A mountain should be shown with assemblages of rocks, peaks, minerals, trees, cataracts and snakes. Forest is to be shown with different kinds of trees, birds, and beasts of prey. Water is to be represented with innumerable fish and tortoises, with lotuses, aquatic animals and with other qualities natural to water. "25 Somesvara simply says that a painter 25. visnudharmottara puranah- 42.57-59. atah param pravaksyami rupam yadasya drsyate | akasam darsayedvidvanvivarnam khagamakulam | tathaiva darsayedrajaistarakamanditam divam | bhumim ca jamgalanupa misram svaih svaistatha gunaih || parvatam tu silajalaih sikharairdhatubhirddhamah | nirjharairbhujagaiscaiva darsayannrpasattam ||

192 should use proper colours to paint a tree, mountain, weapons etc. 26