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Religion, bound up as it is with almost everything in India, naturally exercises a powerful influence upon Since the all the arts, and especially on music. The earliest use of music was doubtless for religious purpose. Vedic times it has been cultivated as an art. The hymns of the Rgveda and Yajurveda were set to music ages ago. 146. Cf. N.V.Narasimha Murti, and B.K.Gururajrao. Samagra Bharatiya Itihasa Vol. I. (Gita Book House, New Statue Circle, Mysore), p.133.

246 Hindu music can hardly be said to have ever shaken itself free from being in some way or other connected with the religion of the country, traces of which are everywhere apparent even now. Almost all the books, especially the most ancient, relating to the art contain constant references to mythological traditions. The language used is often so figurative that in many cases no one but a scholar can decipher its real purport. More importance is paid to such trifling details as the proper attributes, colour, caste etc. of each defined melody type (Raga) than to the arrangements of notes which compose it and to the practical directions for its performance. note scale and measure is personified, and long chapters. are devoted to the description of the habitations, ralment, etc. of those gods and nymphs. Much valuable information can of course be gleaned from these books. Many of them contain a good deal of what is almost useless to the musician, though most interesting from an antiquarian point of view. Each Music has been called the language of emotions. This is not an unreasonable methaphor, because music, like language, aims at communicating meaning. Like language too it possesses a grammar, a syntax, and a rhetoric. But it is a different kind of language.

247 Words are concrete, tone is fluid and intangible. A word taken by itself has a fixed meaning, a tone assumes meaning only from its association with other tones. Words convey specific ideas, music suggests elusive states of 1 mind. Somesvara of Western Calukyan dynasty is considered to be an authority on music. This dynasty has been 147 referred to by C.R.Day. "The most flourishing age of Indian music was during the period of native princes, a little before the Mohomedan conquest. # Sarangadeva also says about Somesvara that King Somesvara is considered to be an authority on music. 148 Somesvara, first of all, gives the origin of Ragas and then enumerates various types of Ragas. According The Svaras to him the Svaras originate from the Samaveda. then give rise to the gramas, and gramas to the jatis. 147. C.R.Day. 'The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan'. (B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, 1974) p.3. 148. sarngadeva, sangitaratnakara 1.18. 鈥� rudrado nanyabhupalo bhojabhuvallabhastatha | paramardi ca someso jagadekamahipatih ||

248 It is from the jatis that the Ragas are determined. 鈼�--The Ragas then give birth to bhasas. From bhasas originate 149 vibhasas and from the latter the antarabhasikas. 150 It is Then Somesvara describes the origin of the DesiRagas. His opinion is that the Desi-Ragas derive their names from the regions in which they are current. These Desi Ragas were current in his times and were very popular as sources of amusement. Then he gives the definition of Raga. He says that Raga has a direct relationship with Sruti. It pleases and elates the mind. thus by its character of pleasing that it is known as Raga. Further Somesvara classifies Ragas under various heads which are as follows. (1) Suddna Ragas, (2) Bhinna Ragas, (3) Gouda Ragas, (4) Malava Ragas, (5) sadharana Ragas etc. Then he describes many sub-types under these heads (4.16.124-198). 149. samavedatsvara jatah svarebhyo gramasambhavah | gramebhyo jatayi jata jatibhyo raganirnayah || ragebhyasca tatha bhasa bhasabhyasca vibhasakah | vibhasabhyo'pisa jatastathaivantarabhasikah || 4.17.120-121. 150. desiragasta evatra desanamasamudbhavah | pravartante vinodesu sampratam sumanoharah || raga pravartate srutya rajyate manasam sada | tena ragahh samakhyata namatastanbravimyaham || 4.17.122-123.

249 The ancient writers on Music considered two fundamental features of musical forms. The were Aucitya and Lalitya i.e. propriety and gracefulness. According to some writers, an action was considered proper if it was motivated by an ideal and also proved useful on completion. Thus, an idea of propriety consisted in a combination of both idealism and utility. To them was added Lalitya or gracefulness which set the musical composition to a rhythmic pattern. 1 First of all Somesvara describes musicians. They are divided into four types, namely Uttamottama, Uttama, Madhyama and Adhama. Somesvara says that only a man who 151 is satisfied and happy is eligible for the Gitavinoda. Further he tells about the characters of the best musician. He says, "A Musician should be impartial, free from censure, a good speaker, scholar, and so on. "152 (4.16.3-8). A musician who is expert in Svara, Tala, Padabandha etc., is the Uttamottama musician. But he who has some of these 151. trpto hrstamana gite vinodam kartumarhati | 4. 17.2. 152. gunaikapaksapati ca parivadaparamukhah | gle: fyriqat arrat durat a fahafaq || 4.17.3. priyamvado vagmi medhavi visesavit prodhah 1

250 characters becomes Uttama musician. 153 Further Somesvaca 154 Gayakas 1.e. bad musicians. describes Nindita - --------Somesvara.gives much importance to the Dhvani. He gives the definition of Dhvani and its five varieties, namely (1) Madhura, (2) Snigdha, (3) Ghana, (4) sravaka and (5) Sthanaka. 155 Then Somesvara gives the definition of Gadya. That That which has no rules of pada and chhandas, and contains 156 many Samasas is called Gadya. This type of Gadya was --also sung in its particular tone in the court of Somesvara. He quotes an example of this (4.16.248). Further Somesvara gives a list of Prabandhas which are based on all or some 153. svarapatprayogesu pravinah padabandhane | srestho vaggeyakaro 'yamuttamottama ucyate || gunaih kaiscidvihino'pi dhatumatuvicaksanah | uttamah so'pi vijneyo gitasastravisaradaih || 4. 17.24-25. 154. yastu gayati lobhena prakrtan gunavarjitan | sa tindhah syatsatam madhye hasyasyayatanam mahat || 4.17.565. 155. venuvinasamo nado yukto'sau dhvanirisyate | kokilasvanakkaso madhuradhvanirucyate || ucca-sthane'pi yah sravyah snigdho dhvanirasaumatah | akrso nibido yastu ghano'sau dhvaniriritah || durasthah sruyate yastu vrndamadhyasthito'pi va | madhuryadigunopetah sravako dhvaniriritah || uccasthane'pi yah sravyah sobhano laksananvitah | dhvaninamuttamah prokto dhvanih sthanakasobhanah || 4.17.81-84. 156. padanam niyamo nasti chando yatra na vidyate | samasapadabhuyistham tattu gadhe nigadyate || 4.17.247.

251 of the six angas viz., Svara, Biruda i.e. praise of a deity or a person, Pada i.e. word of composition, Tenaka --鈼廼.e. auspicious phrases, Pata i.e. rhythmical sounds and The musical compositions Tala i.e. time measure. 157 based on Padas are called Dvipadi, Tripadi, Catuspadi and Satpadi according to the number of Padas they contain. They consist of not only Padas but other angas also, e.g. the Dvipadi should have proper Svaras and may be sung in any Tala. King Somesvara tells in Manasollasa about the compositions in other languages also. He divides musical compositions according to the language in which they are written, Gatha, for instance, is composed in the Prakrit language. Kanda and Varna Prabandhas are composed in 157. anenaiva prakarena padesu birudesu ca | devamuddisya bhupam va vanchitaryena giyate || 4.17.25. idrk padani tennasca talamananiyojitah | udahrtiriyam prokta prabandhe lalitabhidhe || 4. 17.29. pancabhangiprabandhasya sparsitam laksanam maya | visesah khandasandhinam tenakah parikirtitah || srivilasah svaradih syatcchrirangah patapurvakah | pancananah padadih syad bisdadistu matalih | 4. 17.41-42.

252 158 Karnata language, the Suka-Sarika is composed in Karnata and Lata languages. It contains questions and answers. (4.16.256-285) and so on. Classification has also been made on the basis of the sentiments or Rasas which the particular musical compositions express. The main example in this connection is the musical composition known as Rasa-sandoha which is sung to evoke sentiments 1 ike Sxhgara etc. In this way Somesvara tells about many Ragas and Prabandhas, their characters and so on. 159 160 Describing the aim of these Prabandhas, king Somesvara says that they are sung mainly for three purposes, firstly as a prayer to various deities, secondly in praise of the king, or the prince or the queen or a noble lady and 158. aryalaksanasamyukta gatha prakrtabhasaya | 4.17.256. karnatabhasayaivasau giyate kandasamjnakah 1 4.17.292. padaih prasnottarairyuktah sa proktah sukasarikah 11 4.17.320. 159. srngaradirasaih sarvairastabhiryo prayojitah | rasasandohanama sa prabandhah parigiyate || 4.17.371. 160. ragani ca prabandhanamuktam laksanamuttamam | ramyo gitavinodo'yam kathitah somabhubhuja || 4.17.555. .

253 thirdly for the sake of money. But if a person sings in praise of ordinary persons, devoid of any virtue, out of sheer greed, he is to be cursed. But if one sings in praise of a diety and a king, he gets salvation and wealth 161 respectively. Paja Hearing & Indian musical instruments have a long history. In India these musical instruments are found in the ancient texts, carvings on the temple walls as well as old paintings and specimens are found in excavations. According to the ancient theorists, sound is the soul of song and the same is sustained by musical instruments. The Vadya was thus an imitation and regulation of human voice. Coming from the Vedic period, we find references to the 162 Vina and the Mrdanga in the Taittiriya Samhita. Somesvara in his Manasollasa mentions four varieties, namely, 1. Prthak-Vadya i.e. instrument proper; 2. Gita-Sangata i.e. an instrument accompanying song. 161. devan gayati yo bhaktya tasya muktirbhaved dhruvam | yo gayati mahipalam tasya bhuktirnirantaram || 4.17.566. 162. taittiriya samhita . 6.1.4.1.

$ n 254 . 13. Nrttanuga, i.e. an instrument accompanying dance; 4. Gitanrttanuga i.e. an instrument accompanying song and dance both. 163 Somesvara describes the importance of musical instruments. He says that gita or music is heightened by musical instruSimilarly, dance without musical instruments is ments. of no avail. Therefore, musical instruments are most important in the musical system. Somesvara further 164 classified musical instruments into four types, which are as follows: (1) Tata, (2) Vitata, (3) Ghana and (4) Susira. Tata instruments are those which contain strong strings or wires for producing sounds. They are played with fingers. Vitata instruments are those like Mrdanga in which leather is extended on strong frames. Ghana are those musical instruments which are made of metals viz. cymbals and lastly Susira are wind instruments such as flute (4.16.572-578). The preparation of musical instruments also is described in the Manasollasa. 搂 163. tadapi procyate prajnaih prthagvadyam prthagvidham | gra: gitena sangatam yantu tadgitanugamucyate || 4. 17.584. 164. Mentoru guri zutg Ingryfdurfaut - 1 tatam ca vitatam caiva dhanam susirameva ca || 4. 17.57 1. Cf. Viveka-cintamani by Nijaguna Sivayogendra. 4 Prakarana, Vadyabheda. (1) Tata, (2) Anadha, (3) Ghana, and (4) Susira.

tt 255 Further Somesvara describes the occasions on which the different musical instruments are played. Prthak Vadya is played on the occasions of marriage, ordeal, 165 It is some adventurous deed, sacrificial rites, etc. also played in the temples, palaces, the abodes of elephants or horses, in the battle-field, at the place festivities.etc. Here Somesvara mentions, that the Dhakka musical instrument is used at the time of worship. Trivali musical instrument is used at the time of Lasya Karata musical instrument is Nrtya of female dancer. 167 used on the occasion of festivals, marriages, piligramages and excursions. 168 166 165 tasya vadana - bhedasya laksanam kathyate'dhuna | vivahe ca pariksayamutsaha - tyagakarmani || 4. 17.581. 166. patavarna ime sarve dhakkayam parikirtitah | sodasanguladirgha syanmukhe castagulantara || 4.17.743. pataksaram hudukkavanmandidhakkasu kalpitam | mandalimadhyarajjum ca vamahastena pidayet || savyahastagatam vaktram savyahastena vadayet | saktidaivatapujayam caryaganavidhau tatha || 4. 17.745-746. 167. madhupanapramattanam yositam lasyanartana || 4.17.750. 168. kacchya vestayetprantam sesam skandhe katau nyaset | karata sa vinirdista vaktradvayanivadibhih || kakarasca takarasca rikari rephamastakah | utsave ca vivahe ca yatrayam nrpamandire || 4.17.770-771-

w 1 256 . Somesvara further divides musical instruments under many heads according to their function. The Samprasara type is one in which the strings are touched by the Kanistha i.e. smallest and Tarjani i.e. second finger 169 and the thumb is curved. The Kuhara type of instrument is that in which the thumb as well as other fingers are slightly curved, while the shortest finger touches the Instrument. The Dhara type of instrument is that in which the hands work like scissors in going up and down. The Kutti is one in which the hand works like half scissors. Kankala is that which produces sphurita and murcchita notes. In this way ne gives ten 171 varieties of musical instruments. 170 169. kanisthatarjani sparsastantrayascetparsvato bhavet | samprasara iti khyatastvarddhacandrakarah parah || 4.17.641-642. 170. tadadhah sphurito hastah svasitena samanvitah | utksepaparivartabhyam kartarirephsamyutam || ullekharephasahitam dharakhyam vadane viduh | kasphuritato dyosaih karabherderalamkrta || arthakartarisamyukta kokutinama kathyate | sphuritairmurchitairyuktah kartaritritayanvitam || kakkalasamjnakam vadyam prahurvadyavisaradah || 4. 17.645-648. 171. evam dasavidham vadyam praha somesvaro nrpah | upayogo'sya siksayam vivado nopayujyate || 4.17.653.

257 172 After describing these varied types of musical instruments, king Somesvara states that they should be played in the gardens and on the auspicious occasions of marriage festivities etc. The marriage procession is accompanied by the playing of the music of the Panca-mahasabdas. The word Pancamahasabda means the use of five auspicious and sweet sounds produced by five musical instruments. The five instruments seem to include Bheri, Sankha, Kahala, Mrdanga and Kamsya-tala. However, Thus music and dance were the most popular arts that attracted the cottage and the palace alike. they elicited greater interest and warmer reception in the community of the elite. It was a cultural accomplishment with the ladies and gents of the royal and aristocrate families who devotely practised and gained proficiency therein. Instances are not wanting of even queens and princesses, well-versed in these lores appearing in public before select audience to demonstrate their skill. Music and dance similarly flourished under the patronage of Somesvara. We get numerous references to 1 172. tatah pancamahasabdevadhimanaijigarah || 3.12.1511.

I 258 the accomplished 'singing' and 'dancing' sculptures. They indicate not only the general level of prosperity but also artistic attainments.