Expiatory Rites in Keralite Tantra
by T. S. Syamkumar | 2017 | 59,416 words
This page relates 鈥楨xpiatory Rites in Vaishnava Tantras鈥� of the study on Expiatory Rites in Sanskrit literature and ancient Indian religion and society, with special reference to Keralite Tantra. Further references to texts include those found in Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism as well as Dharmashastra literature. This study also investigates temple records and inscriptions of Kerala in order to demonstrate the connection between social life and expiatory rites and its evolution.
Go directly to: Footnotes.
2. Expiatory Rites in 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 Tantras
The commencement of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 worships can be seen in 峁欢惫别诲补; comparatively 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 was not a well-known deity in that period. Only two or three hymns are devoted to 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 in 峁欢惫别诲补.[1] The term 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 is used for the worshippers or the devotees of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻, 碍峁涐梗峁嘺, 狈补谤补蝉颈峁僪补 etc. The term 叠丑腻驳补惫补迟补 usually indicates the devotees of 狈腻谤腻测补峁嘺;[2] it also indicates a group of priests working in the temples of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻.[3] The Besnagar 骋补谤耻岣峚 pillar inscription of Heliodorous[4] and Ghos奴峁囜笉i inscription of Sarvat膩ta proclaim the ancient popularity of 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫颈蝉尘.[5] Generally 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 Tantric tradition is divided in to three schools; 叠丑腻驳补惫补迟补, 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 and 痴补颈办丑腻苍补蝉补.[6] The 痴补颈办丑腻苍补蝉补 system is closely related to the Vedic corpus. The 痴补颈办丑腻苍补蝉补艣rautas奴tra and 痴补颈办丑腻苍补蝉补sm膩rttas奴tra are the important treatises of 痴补颈办丑腻苍补蝉补 tradition. The two medieval digests like 膧苍补苍诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 and 膧诲颈蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 are related to Yajurveda branch.[7] It is observed that 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 School is also known as 叠丑腻驳补惫补迟补 School, which is the basic and earliest school of Tantric 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫颈蝉尘. The name 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 is most likely connected with the 笔补帽肠补谤腻迟谤补蝉atra, a sacrifice performed in five days, referred to in 艢补迟补辫补迟丑补产谤腻丑尘补峁嘺.[8] It is considered by tradition that 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补sa峁僪it膩s are 108 in number, but more than two hundred works are mentioned.[9] 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补s like 厂惫腻测补尘产丑耻惫补辫补帽肠补谤腻迟谤补, 础峁ａ弓腻诲补艣补惫颈诲丑腻苍补 and 顿别惫腻尘峁泃补辫补帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 are the earlier 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 Tantric ritual manuals. It can be seen that these 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 texts obviously adopted the Mantras and rituals of 艢补颈惫颈蝉尘 and Vedism. Most of the modern scholars and the tradition say that 厂腻迟迟惫补迟腻, 闯补测腻办测腻 and 笔补耻峁补谤补 are the authoritative works in this field. These works have enormously influenced the later tradition of 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤腻驳补尘补蝉. Schrader alludes that 莫艣惫补谤补, 笔腻谤补尘别艣惫补谤补 and 笔腻诲尘补 are the significant expansions of these works.[10] The 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 temples of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka etc. follow 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤腻驳补尘补蝉. Prof. Ramacandra Rao observes: 鈥淎ccording to 莫艣惫补谤补sa峁僪it膩 (1.64), the 厂腻迟迟惫补迟腻 followed in the temple of 狈腻谤腻测补峁嘺 at Melukote (in Karnataka), the 笔补耻峁补谤补 in the famous 搁补峁単补苍腻迟丑补 temple at 艢谤墨谤补峁単补尘 (in Tamil Nadu), and 闯补测腻办测腻 in the Vardar膩ja temple at 碍腻帽肠墨辫耻谤补峁� (also in Tamil Nadu).鈥�[11] Rao further observes that 痴颈峁ａ箛耻sa峁僪it膩 is being followed for performing in the 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 temples of Kerala. But recently it is not directly seen followed, even though, its influences can be seen in later Tantric manuals of Kerala.
The study of 笔补帽肠补谤腻迟谤补蝉 and 艢补颈惫补 Tantras clearly shows that the main rituals are similar in both traditions. Most of 艢aivite and Vedic culture are implicitly adapted in 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补sa峁僪itas. In this context Diwakar Acharya says thus: 鈥溾��.the influence of 艢补颈惫颈蝉尘 over 笔补帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫颈蝉尘 in the early medieval period, at a time when 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫颈蝉尘 was beginning a process of self transformation that involved partly resting itself in the mould of Tantric 艢补颈惫颈蝉尘. Besides, these also speak of the influence of late Vedic and 厂尘腻谤迟补 ritual system over the 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 ritual system.鈥�[12] 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补s mostly used the Vedic and 艢aivite Mantras in the worshipping and other ceremonies like installation and Homa sacrifices of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻, including expiatory rituals.[13] In the discussion of early Tantric 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫颈蝉尘 and the expiatory rituals, the works like 厂惫腻测补峁僢丑耻惫补辫补帽肠补谤腻迟谤补, 顿别惫腻尘峁泃补辫补帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 and 础峁ａ弓腻诲补艣补惫颈诲丑腻苍补 are very significant. Scholars argued that the period of these 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补s is between eleventh and twelfth centuries CE.[14] These earliest 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 Tantras do not deal with expiatory rites; but they describe Pacificatory rites for all types of obstacles and impurities. According to 厂腻迟迟惫补迟补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, due expiations are to be performed before the initiation.[15] It is believed that a sin is a blemish of a 厂腻诲丑补办补. Hence this text directs to perform the expiation of K峁沜hra Vrata, Atik峁沜hra, reciting Mantras of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻, drinking of 叠谤补丑尘补迟墨谤迟丑补 and 笔补帽肠补驳补惫测补 for cleansing of sins. In the excess of sins, it predominantly says to facilitate a gift of gold as an expiatory rite.[16] According to this text, the number of expiations to be performed by 碍峁迟谤颈测补蝉, 痴补颈峁补蝉 and 艢奴诲谤补蝉 should increase in order.[17] The 厂腻迟迟惫补迟补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 does not deal with expiations related to temple rituals, whereas 笔补耻峁补谤补sa峁僪it膩 and 艢谤墨辫耻谤耻峁迟迟补尘补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 describe these. The 笔补耻峁补谤补 discusses the performance of expiation for the damage and defect of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 idol.[18] The expiations suggested here are fasting, 顿腻苍补, gift of food, reciting the Dv膩da艣膩k峁ramantra and 础峁ａ弓腻办峁谤补 Mantra of 痴腻蝉耻诲别惫补.[19] The 艢谤墨辫耻谤耻峁迟迟补尘补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 also includes the similar ideas.[20] And it distinctly states the causes leading to expiations. They are damages and defects of an idol, flagstaff and temple premises, omission of daily rituals, omission of light, entering of a 颁补峁囜笉腻濒补, cat, rat and cocks, birth and death in temple courtyard, presence of excretion and urine in shrine, presence of impure substances, entering of thief in temple, burning of umbrella and other substances of the deity, face to face placing of idols of two deities, shaking and falling down of an idol etc.[21] For avoidance of these impurities, it suggest sprinkling of water (笔耻峁噛腻丑补), 碍补濒补艣补, reciting the 痴颈峁ａ箛耻s奴kta, 础驳丑补尘补谤峁峁嘺蝉奴办迟补 and 艢膩ntis奴kta, feasting of a Brahmin with 顿补办峁峁嘺 and 艢腻苍迟颈丑辞尘补.[22]
The early 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 ritual manuals (the 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤腻驳补尘补蝉) do not give details of expiatory rituals. In course of time the number of expiatory rites related to the impurity concept basing the caste system, have been increased. It might be result of the Brahminisation of 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 Tantra, as the 痴补谤峁嘺 system and related rites are the visible features of Vedic Sm膩rtta Brahmins. Influence of 痴补谤峁嘺 system and related rites of Sm膩rtta Brahmins were obviously seen in later versions of 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 ritual manuals. In fact in the early period, the Vedic authorities considered that the P膩帽car膩tri峁僺 were unorthodox sinners and belong to outcastes. Some 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉 and 厂尘峁泃颈蝉 also shared the same view. The Dharma legal authorities of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻, 厂奴迟补, 艢at膩tapa, 贬腻谤颈迟补 and 叠辞诲丑腻测补苍补 equally say that the P膩帽car膩tri峁僺 are outcastes. Also 碍奴谤尘补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 prohibited inviting the P膩帽car膩tri峁僺 to the house hold customs.[23] Gradually the Brahmins appropriated with the Tantric ideals and practices. Historically it can be assumed that the Brahmins have interpolated their 痴补谤峁嘺 concept and concept of impurity in all Tantric manuals. Evidently quoting the words of 惭别诲丑腻迟颈迟丑颈, Sanderson has precisely pointed out the Vaidika exclusivity and persecution of Brahmanism towards other religious sects.[24]
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
峁欢惫别诲补, 1.154.2-3,155. 4-5,7.100.3-5 and 8.9.7.
[2]:
[3]:
Ibid., p. 232.
[4]:
Historically, Besnagar 骋补谤耻岣峚 pillar inscription of Heliodorous is a first known inscription of 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫颈蝉尘 in India. The date of this inscription is 113 BCE. Heliodorous was a Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra. The pillar surmounted by a sculpture of 骋补谤耻岣峚. And it was dedicated to lord 痴腻蝉耻诲别惫补. See Avari, Burjor, India: The Ancient Past A History of Indian Subcontinent from c. 7000 BCE to CE 1200, Routledge, p.167. For further details see, Romila Thapper, Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, University of California Press, pp. 216-217.
[5]:
The Ghosundi is a village in the Chittorgarh district of Rajasthan. The Ghosundi inscription of the king Sarvat膩ta dated in between 2nd and 1st century BCE. This inscription refers to the construction of an enclosure in Narayan Vatika for the worship of 厂补峁卥补谤峁峁嘺 and 痴腻蝉耻诲别惫补. See, Hand Book of Victoria Hall Museum of Udaipur, Department of Archeology and Museums, Government of Rajashtan, 1961, p. 7.
[6]:
According to Gerad Colas 叠丑腻驳补惫补迟补 is the name of Brahmin actors of Kuchipu岣峺 who enact plays on 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 themes in the Telugu speaking region. Vide Gerad Colas, op.cit., p. 239. A ninth century Cambodian inscription also mentions three types of 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补s; 笔补帽肠补谤腻迟谤补, 叠丑腻驳补惫补迟补 and 厂腻迟迟惫补迟补蝉. 叠腻峁嘺 in his 贬补谤峁肠补谤颈迟补 clearly mentions 叠丑腻驳补惫补迟补 and 笔补帽肠补谤腻迟谤颈办补蝉 as two distinct groups. Vide Gerad Colas, op.cit., p. 238. In Tantra Literature of Kerala, N.P. Unni, discussed five types of 笔补帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 schools. They are 痴补颈办丑腻苍补蝉补, 厂腻迟迟惫补迟补, 艢ikhi峁僺, Ek膩nthika and 惭奴濒补办补. p. 46.
[7]:
Gerad Colas, op.cit., p. 236.
[8]:
艢补迟补辫补迟丑补-产谤腻丑尘补峁嘺, 13.6.1.1. Varadachary notes: 鈥淭he word P膩帽car膩tr膩 is singular in number and neuter in gender being a collective noun. The word must then mean the system; that has relationship to five nights or an occurrence during that period. [ ] The word 笔补帽肠补 refers to the five objects of the senses, five elements, and five qualities of the elements, five forms of the 痴颈峁ａ箛耻, five sacraments, and five sages. All other systems become dark, which is the sense of the word 搁腻迟谤颈, before the 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 which shines like the Sun. The four 痴测奴丑补 deities 碍别艣补惫补, 狈腻谤腻测补峁嘺, and others constitute the group of five and this gives the name 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补. [鈥︹� The name 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 must therefore mean the fivefold division of the day.鈥� See 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤腻驳尘补, Tirumala Tiruppati Deavasthanamas, Tiruppati, 2001, pp.14-17.
[9]:
See The 膧驳补尘补 Encyclopedia, Vol. I, p.18; and also see the appendix of this same volume. In his study, Schrader has listed 210 names of 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤腻驳补尘补蝉. See Schrader, F.O., Introduction to the P膩帽car膩tr膩 and the Ahirbudhnya 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, Adyar Library, Madras, 1916, pp. 8-11. He had interestingly discussed the home and real place of 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤腻驳补尘补蝉: 鈥淭he P膩帽car膩tr膩 must have originated in the North of India and subsequently spread to the south. Had the opposite taken place, most of the extant 厂补峁僪颈迟腻蝉 would somehow betray this fact, which is not the case. The story of the 艢惫别迟补诲惫墨辫补 seems even to point to the extreme north, and do some 厂补峁僪颈迟腻蝉, among them Ahirbudhnya, as we shall see. The thesis may therefore be advanced that all 厂补峁僪颈迟腻蝉 betraying a South Indian (Dravidian) origin belong to the later stock of the literature.鈥� Ibid., p. 16. But V. Varadachary opines that the 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤腻驳补尘补蝉 must have been originated in the Kashmir region. Varadachary gives many evidences for supporting of his argument: 鈥溾�� the 膧驳补尘补岣峚峁僢ara, which was written by 闯补测补苍迟补产丑补峁弓补 (AD 880) of Kashmir, refers to the practices of the followers of the P膩帽car膩tr膩 system. There is no evidence to prove that the 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤颈办补蝉 of the earliest periods lived in a place other than Kashmir. Secondly the word 艢补办迟颈辫腻迟补 is used to refer to the favour of the deity. This word occurs in the Kashmir 艢aivite texts. Thirdly, the birch-bark which grows only in Kashmir is enjoined in the early 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 text for using it to draw the Yantra of the deities. Fourthly the 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 texts 笔补耻峁补谤补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 mentions the names of the rivers from which water is to be brought for giving bath to the deity. 骋补峁単补 is sated there to flow in the east, Yamuna in the south east, and Sarasvati in the south. The region with reference to which these directions are mentioned must only be Kashmir. Lastly, the passages from 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 texts, are quoted by Utpala (850 AD) in his 厂辫补苍诲补辫谤补诲墨辫颈办腻.鈥� See Varadachary, V., 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤腻驳尘补, pp. 17-19.
[10]:
Schrader gives the chorology of the ancient 厂补峁僪颈迟腻蝉 as follows: 1. 笔补耻峁谤补 2. 厂腻迟迟惫迟补 3. Ahirbudhnya 4. 笔腻谤补尘别艣惫谤补 5. 笔腻诲尘补 and 6. 莫艣惫补谤补. He significantly says that 笔补耻峁补谤补, 厂腻迟迟惫补迟补 and Jaya are more authoritative works in the 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 world. Schrader, op. cit., p. 20f.
[11]:
Ibid., p. 44.
[12]:
Vide Diwakar Acharya, Early Tantric 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫颈蝉尘: Three Newly Discovered Works of The 笔补帽肠补谤腻迟谤补, French Institute Pondicherry, 2015, pp. viii-x.
[13]:
For a detailed discussion of the topic vide Diwakar Acharya, op.cit., p. lviii-lxiv.
[14]:
The present text is critically edited by Diwakar Acharya depending on the 11th and 12th century Nepalese palm leaf manuscripts.
[15]:
[16]:
[17]:
苍峁沺补惫颈峁璫丑奴诲谤补箩腻迟墨测补 别办补颈办补峁� vardhayet kram膩t |
m膩samek膩dik膩t k膩l膩t sam膩rabhya 测补迟丑腻办谤补尘补尘 || 厂腻迟迟惫补迟补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, 16.22.
[18]:
sam膩h峁泃e峁 mantre峁 c膩lyam膩ne峁 pau峁ara |
bha峁単e karmava艣膩jj膩te pratim膩su pram膩data岣� || 笔补耻峁补谤补sa峁僪it膩, 43.151.
[19]:
笔补耻峁补谤补sa峁僪it膩, 43.153-157.
[20]:
艢谤墨辫耻谤耻峁迟迟补尘补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, 30.3-5.
[21]:
艣谤耻峁嘘 brahman pravak峁膩mi pr膩s膩de c膩峁単abha峁単ake |
dhvaje prabh膩y膩峁� p墨峁環e ca gopure c膩yudhe'pi ca ||
bi峁僲be caiv膩峁単abha峁単膩disandh膩ne tu nav墨k峁泃e |
nityap奴j膩vih墨ne ca nityad墨p膩din膩艣ane ||
m膩rj膩lam奴峁k膩gaur墨mara峁噀 mandir膩峁単a峁噀 |
c膩峁囜笉膩la艣abar膩dyai艣ca sp峁涐梗峁璭 bimbe tathaiva ca ||
sve kukku峁璦k膩k膩dijanane mara峁噀'pi ca |
mandire malam奴tr膩dispar艣ado峁stu sambhave ||
k峁沵ik墨峁乨idu峁ａ弓asya havi峁 vinivedane |
devasya hasane caiva calane rodane tath膩 ||
valm墨k膩disamutpanne mandire ma峁囜笉ape'pi v膩 |
aj帽膩tacorasa峁僺p峁涐梗峁璭 khadyotaspar艣ane tath膩 ||
chatrac膩maravastr膩峁嚹佱箖 dahane jvalit膩gnin膩 |
devasya c膩nyadevasya anyony膩bhimukhe'pi v膩 ||
var峁dakaistu sa峁僺p峁涐梗峁璭 bimbe p膩dukayostath膩 |
膩laye madhusampr膩pte vajrap膩te'pi v膩 guru ||
bimbasya calane caiva patane dahane'pi ca |
evam膩dinimitte峁 samprok峁峁嘺math膩caret || 艢谤墨辫耻谤耻峁迟迟补尘补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, 30.36-44.
[22]:
Ibid., 30.45-51.
[23]:
碍奴谤尘补辫耻谤腻峁嘺, 1.11.272-273; Also vide The 膧驳补尘补 Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, p. 54.
[24]:
He says thus: 鈥淪o all those outside (the Veda) namely the worshippers of sun (Bhojaka), the followers of 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补, the Jainas, the (Buddhist) deniers of the self (An膩tmav膩di), the 笔腻艣耻辫补迟补, and the rest hold that their doctrines have been authored by exceptional persons or deities who have had direct experience of the truth they teach. They do not claim that their religious practices derive (like ours) from the (eternal and unauthored - 础辫补耻谤耻峁测补) Veda; and indeed their teachings contain doctrines that directly contradict it.鈥� Cf. Sanderson, A., 鈥淭olerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion during the Early Medieval Period鈥�, pp.159-160. Sanderson further notes: 鈥渢he south Indian 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 驰腻尘耻苍补 cites a text without attribution in his 膧驳补尘补pr膩m膩峁噛a that rules on the authority of 厂尘峁泃颈 that the term 笔腻峁峁囜笉补峁� covers the whole range of non-Vaidika systems: the 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 笔腻帽肠补谤腻迟谤补 the 艢补颈惫补 [惭补苍迟谤补尘腻谤驳补], the 笔腻艣耻辫补迟补, the 碍腻辫腻濒颈办补, Buddhism, and Jainism.鈥� Ibid., p. 162-163, fn. 15.