Expiatory Rites in Keralite Tantra
by T. S. Syamkumar | 2017 | 59,416 words
This page relates 鈥楨xpiatory Rites in Shakta-Tantras鈥� of the study on Expiatory Rites in Sanskrit literature and ancient Indian religion and society, with special reference to Keralite Tantra. Further references to texts include those found in Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism as well as Dharmashastra literature. This study also investigates temple records and inscriptions of Kerala in order to demonstrate the connection between social life and expiatory rites and its evolution.
Go directly to: Footnotes.
3. Expiatory Rites in 艢腻办迟补-Tantras
The Goddess centered Tantras or 艢补办迟颈-Tantras generally divided into four 膧尘苍腻测补蝉 viz., 笔奴谤惫腻尘苍腻测补, 鲍迟迟补谤腻尘苍腻测补, 笔补艣肠颈尘腻尘苍腻测补 and 顿补办峁峁嚹乵苍腻测补.[1] The scriptures includes in this division like Siddha-测辞驳别艣惫补谤墨尘补迟补, 惭腻濒颈苍墨惫颈箩补测辞迟迟补谤补, 颁颈峁僣颈峁嚹玬补迟补蝉腻谤补蝉补峁僩谤补丑补, 顿别惫墨-辫补帽肠补艣补迟补办补, 碍谤补尘补蝉补诲产丑腻惫补, 惭补苍迟丑腻苍补产丑补颈谤补惫补迟补苍迟谤补 and 碍耻产箩颈办腻-mata. These scriptures do not discuss the temple related expiatory rites. Even though the 厂颈诲诲丑补测辞驳别艣惫补谤墨尘补迟补 and 闯帽腻谤峁嘺惫补迟补苍迟谤补 deals some diminutive form of expiation related to Tantric practioner. 闯帽腻谤峁嘺惫补迟补苍迟谤补, suggests the worship of goddess for the removing of grievous sins.[2]
艢补办迟颈-Tantras were not gravely discussing the concept of expiations related to temple rituals. They importantly give the esoteric, philosophical and mystical ideas of Tantric rituals. But at the same time, a Kaula[3] text 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺迟补苍迟谤补,[4] manifests a distinct and elaborate idea of expiatory rituals. It considers that sin is two-fold as doing mischief to one鈥檚 own self and the same towards others.[5] And it shares a belief that by the punishment administrated by the king one is released of the sin. Similar to 厂尘峁泃颈蝉 and Pur膩峁噄c literature, it frightens in the name of hell. It believes that those who are not purified by the expiation, they have to live eternally in the hell.[6] Impact of 厂尘峁泃颈蝉 were very much seen in 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺迟补苍迟谤补. The description of the role of king is a good example. It suggests that the king should punish a Brahmin or a Tantric worshipper with warning only.[7] The major part of the expiatory chapter of this treatise suggests fasting, 顿腻苍补, feasting of Kaula Brahmins, P奴r峁嚹乥hi峁ka, chanting of Mantras, Vy膩h峁泃ihoma etc. as expiatory rites. Some of the important expiations dealt in this work are illustrated below:
Expiatory Rites Related to Woman: Most parts of 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 describe expiatory rites related to woman. If a man who has had sex with his step mother, daughter in law, mother in law, the preceptor鈥檚 wife, paternal grandmother, maternal grandmother, uncle鈥檚 daughter鈥檚, maternal uncle鈥檚 daughter鈥檚, maternal uncle鈥檚 wife, brother鈥檚 wife, brother鈥檚 daughter, sister鈥檚 daughter, master鈥檚 daughter, and a maiden are sin full acts.[8] 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-tantra suggests cutting off the male organ as atonement for this. The woman who knowingly engages in those sinful actions, it recommends that they should be driven out of the house as expiation.[9] If one unknowingly marries any one of these women either according to 叠谤腻丑尘补, 艢补颈惫补 or any other mode of marriage, it is considered as a major sin. The expiation is fasting with grains only for one full moon month.[10] If a man who has knowingly had sex with a Brahmin girl, he should cut off his male organ as atonement. As well as the woman鈥檚 face has to be disfigured and her limbs are be cut off, her head is to be shaven and driven out of the kingdom as expiation. 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 also considers that Pratiloma marriage is a major sin; confiscation of his property and fasting with grain only are the expiatory rites. If a 艢补颈惫补 or a Brahmin woman has had sex with another man, she has to forsake the life of Brahmin or 艢补颈惫补.[11] Also having sex with the prostitutes is a sin, fasting with three nights only on grain is its expiation.[12] A man鈥檚 touching and conversation with another鈥檚 woman in a solitary place is a major sin, fasting with only on grain is the expiation. In another case, the Kula woman, who lustfully sees another man, converses with him, touches him or embraces him, is cleansed off her sins severally by fasting for two, four and eight days. Moreover, a man who sees the secret parts or naked parts of a woman is cleansed off his sin by fasting only.[13] If a husband witnesses his wife committing adultery with her paramour, then the husband should kill his wife and her paramour. 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 also suggests that the king should not inflict capital or any other punishment on him (husband).[14] The most other peculiarity of 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺迟补苍迟谤补 is that it describes the details of expiations regarding widows. A different expiatory rite associated with the state of a virgin is, if a maiden is married with a eunuch and if this fact sees light after a long time, the king can marry her again.[15] In addition, it is considered that abortion is also a sin full matter; at that time 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 advocates that the king should give him hard punishments.
Expiations on Killing:
Accordingly if foolishly, unknowingly or by mistake, a man commits a murder, the king should inflict the punishment of a heavy fine on him.[16] Moreover, it thought that if by negligence a man kills another with a weapon or by using a beast, his sin is washed off by a fine or a physical chastisement.[17]
Punishment and Expiation:
The wicked or immoral life of a person, or an acting of spreading false rumours, theft, false witnesses, or false hood, drinking of Sura etc. are considered as major sins. For washing of this sin, 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 puts forward that the king should punish those persons with fines proportionate to their offences.[18]
Expiatory Rites for Touching and Eating of Impure Substances:
If a man consciously eats human flesh or beef he is to cleanse himself by fasting for a fortnight as his expiation.[19] At the same time, fasting for three days is recommended for eating the meat of a beast of the shape of human beings or that of animals, which live on flesh. Furthermore, if a man takes food touched by a Mleccha, Yavana, 颁补峁囜笉腻濒补 or by one who is against Kula religion or by a beast, he is freed from his sin by fasting for a fortnight. If unknowingly a man takes the remnant of the food taken by them, he should act fast for a fortnight as expiation. In addition, the touching of the food of outcastes or law castes is a sinful act; fasting for three days is expiation.[20] Also 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 thinks that when there is dearth of food, when there is a famine or at a time when life is at stake if a man partakes of a forbidden food, he commits no sin thereby.[21]
In 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补, impurity is considered as a major case to be expiated. It deliberated that the seeing and touching of a dead body affected as a hard impurity. If a dead body is found in a pond or well, twenty one jars of full of sacred water should be consecrated with Mantras and to be poured in to the pond or well for the purification of the water. If a dead body of an elephant is found, one hundred jars filled with water should be consecrated with Mantras and to be poured into that pond. Thus it suggests 碍补濒补艣补 is the most important purificatory ritual of impure places.[22] If the house is seen polluted by snake-biting or the fall of thunderbolt, it is to be purified by the performance of one hundred Vy膩h峁泃ihomas.[23]
Expiatory Rites for Killing a Cow: According to 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补, killing of cow is a sinful act. For the washing of this sin, it suggest a K峁沜chravrata as an expiatory rite. After the completion of this Vrata one should shave his head and feed his Kaula kinsmen and friends for having been freed from this sin. The killing of an elephant, camel, buffalo, horse, deer, lamb, goat, cat, peacock, goose, etc. are considered as firm sins. For the avoidance of evil effects, it requests to perform fasting for three days as atonement.[24]
Vrata:
In various contexts 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 demands to perform a variety of vows for freeing from sins. If anyone vilifies them or uses harsh words against the father, mother and preceptor, it insists to do a Vrata for five days from averting sins.[25] As 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 thinks that if a man in a state of an old age or illness is incapable to fast, at this time the feeding of twelve Brahmins can be done as an expiatory rite.[26]
Chanting of 骋腻测补迟谤墨 Mantra:
If any one cannot complete a vow or disregards the injunctions of a deity or touches an idol in a state of impurity, it advises doing 骋腻测补迟谤墨 chanting.[27] For all other sins committed intentionally or unintentionally the recitation of 骋腻测补迟谤墨 is advised as the most suitable expiation.[28]
顿腻苍补:
Those who suffer from leprosy or valetudinarians are entitled to perform rites for their departed manes as well as for celestials by making gifts of gold.[29]
The expiatory chapter of 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 is a distinct work in the systems of 艢腻办迟补 Tantrism, because most of the 艢腻办迟补 systems were not seriously carried out by the concept of sins and their expiations. It seems as the indication the Vedicisation and Brahminisation of Tantra, for the reason that impact of 厂尘峁泃颈蝉 and Vedic culture were immensely seen in 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补. The recitation of 骋腻测补迟谤墨mantra and Vy膩h峁泃ihoma鈥檚 are the examples of Vedic culture.
Sanderson opines:
鈥淸鈥�.] (1) the observances at the first juncture of the day (P奴rvasandhya) (2) the recitation of the 骋腻测补迟谤墨 (闯补辫补岣�) (3) fire sacrifice (贬辞尘补岣�) (4) 鈥榳hatever other rituals are traditional.鈥� The first two are the most elementary of the Brahmanical duties, since they are obligatory even for one who has gone through initiation in to the study of the Veda (Upanayanam) and has not yet married and for a married man who has not yet established a sacrificial fire.鈥�[30]
Another point is the impact of 顿丑补谤尘补艣腻蝉迟谤补 literature. The majority of the expiatory rites described in 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 is similar to that of 厂尘峁泃颈蝉. The concept of Pratiloma marriage, role of king and the punishment are the examples. The 顿丑补谤尘补蝉奴迟谤补 authorities and Manu strongly restricted the Pratiloma Marriage.[31] Moreover from the period of 顿丑补谤尘补蝉奴迟谤补s, drinking of Sura is considered as a sinful act.[32] The use of wine, flesh and sexual intercourse were observed as parts of the Tantric rituals, especially in Kaula Tantras and earliest 艢补颈惫补 manuals.[33] But in 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补, the uses of flesh and wine are strictly prohibited. And the concept of punishment is the of impact of Dharma legal literature.[34] According to Wezler, Lubin and Zrenner, punishment is a social rite; it mostly used to denote the readmission to one鈥檚 previous cast group after the punishment or paying fee. Moreover the punishment is performed for social crimes and other related activities. In 顿丑补谤尘补蝉奴迟谤补s the expiatory rites are interlinked with social rites and customs.[35] Hence gradually these punishment rites are also influenced on the Tantras. 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 suggests that the king should punish a Brahmin only with words. As well, it can be seen that the text gives more importance to the feeding of Brahmins as expiation. Another most important fact is the concept of impurity. 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 strongly restricts the touching of outcastes, Mleccha, Yavana and 颁补峁囜笉腻濒补. Loius Dumont鈥檚 thesis laid out that each caste is located on a hierarchical gradation of purity. This study generally states that the purity is the basis of hierarchy of ancient India.[36]
Madan, another scholar in this field, opines:
鈥淎ccording to traditional caste ideology, which is obviously the brainchild of Brahmins, the key to the rank order lies in the notion of the ritual purity.鈥�[37]
Madan has also stated that caste is interconnected with the concept of ritual impurity.[38] Most of the scholars evidently indicate that the central point of caste system is impurity.[39] The role of woman and their status are very inferior in 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 The earlier periods women have also participated in the Tantric rituals in the name of 顿奴迟墨, 厂腻诲丑补办墨 and 驰辞驳颈苍墨. In 叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补-迟补苍迟谤补, it can be seen that the sexual observances are also performed.[40] But in 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 the sex with woman is strongly restricted. Also it restricts the members of outcastes and other religions to have sex with Brahmin woman as a sinful act. In a study of the expiatory chapter of 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补, it is evident that most of the ideas were acquired from Dharma legal literature. The 顿丑补谤尘补蝉奴迟谤补s of 膧辫补蝉迟补尘产补, Gautama, 痴补蝉颈峁ａ弓补 and 叠补耻诲丑腻测补苍补 think that sex with preceptors wife, drinking wine, killing of cow and other animals, using harsh words, touching of outcastes especially the 颁补峁囜笉腻濒补 are the sinful acts. The penance chapters of theses scriptures elaborately discuss these sins and their remedies. It is evident that the impacts of Dharma legal literature were clearly seen in 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺迟补苍迟谤补.
艢补颈惫补 厂颈诲诲丑腻苍迟腻驳补尘补蝉 provide a major role of expiatory rites in Tantric rituals and temple rites. They also bestow more attention to the concept of sin, ritual mistakes and expiatory rites. In general, the expiatory rites in 膧驳补尘补蝉 perceived that the impact of 艢补颈惫补 expiatory rites can be obviously seen in 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 expiations. The 膧驳补尘补蝉 also adapts various Vedic rites. The chanting of 骋腻测补迟谤墨 and Vy膩h峁泃ihoma were good examples. The 艢腻办迟补 system of Tantras rarely discusses the concept of expiation. Also the impact of Dharma legal rites is evidently seen in later versions of 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 The influence of 闯测辞迟颈峁, which is seen in later Tantric rituals of Kerala, is not seen in 膧驳补尘补 expiations. The 膧驳补尘补蝉 were not prescribing the astrological determination in case of impurities affected in temples. The Tantric rituals of Kerala maintain some unique features along with the general traits of the 膧gamic corpus mentioned above.
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
For a detail discussion of Goddess centered Tantras and their list, See Sanderson, 鈥淭he 艢补颈惫补 Literature鈥�, pp. 35-41. Also see Ajithan, P.I., The Ritualistic Tradition of Tantra in Kerala: A study on its Characteristic Features and Transmission, PhD dissertation, Dept. of Sanskrit Sahitya, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, 2014, pp. 30-35.
[2]:
闯帽腻苍腻谤峁嘺惫补迟补苍迟谤补, 17.81-82.
[3]:
It is observed that the Kula tradition is developed within the context of 碍腻辫腻濒颈办补 cremation ground asceticism. The term Kula means family and it indicates the family of goddess i.e., Tantric female deities. For details vide Flood, Gavin, An Introduction to Hinduism, Manas Saikia for Foundation books, New Delhi, 1998, pp. 165-166.
[4]:
According to N.N. Bhattacharya the date of 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺迟补苍迟谤补 is not much earlier than 18th century CE. And he notes: 鈥淭he 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺迟补苍迟谤补 has been regarded by scholars as a 鈥榬efined鈥� work. The present form of the text is not much earlier than the 18th century and it is burdened with Vedantic elements, but there are reasons to believe that the text had an older form. Its very name suggests that its earlier versions were utilized by the Buddhists. Subsequently Vedantic ideas were interpolated, pure Tantric ritualistic aspects were modified, and it was fashioned in such a way that it would appeal to the Hindu taste in General [鈥︹�. The 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺迟补苍迟谤补 represents the best of the sophisticated Tantric tradition.鈥� Bhattacharya, N.N., History of the Tantric Religion, Manohar, Delhi, 1999, pp. 73-84.
[5]:
sv膩ni峁ａ弓am膩trajanan膩tpar膩ni峁ａ弓opap膩dan膩t |
tadeva 辫腻辫补峁� 诲惫颈惫颈诲丑补峁� j膩n墨hi kulan膩yike || 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补, 11.15.
[6]:
惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补, 11.17.
[7]:
Ibid., 11.25.
[8]:
Ibid., 11.32-34.
[9]:
Idem.
[10]:
Ibid., 11.36.
[11]:
Ibid., 11.38-41.
[12]:
Ibid., 11.43.
[13]:
Ibid., 11.48-50.
[14]:
Ibid., 11.53.
[15]:
Ibid., 11.66.
[16]:
Ibid., 11.72.
[17]:
Ibid., 11.81.
[18]:
In this case, 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补 advocates that the king should confiscate the property of the sinner and burn his tongue.
nendriy膩峁噄 va艣e yasya madavihvalacetasa岣� |
dev膩t膩gurumaryy膩dolla峁単hino bhayar奴pi峁嘺岣� ||
nikhil膩narthayogyasya p膩pina岣� 艣ivagh膩tina岣� |
dahejjihv膩峁� haredarth膩峁僺t膩岣峚yetta峁� ca 辫腻谤迟丑颈惫补岣� || 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补, 11.116-117.
Moreover, fasting only with grains is atonement for washing their sins.
产谤腻丑尘墨峁� 产丑腻谤测测腻峁� 蝉耻谤腻峁� 尘补迟迟腻岣� p膩yayanto dvij膩taya岣� |
艣udhyeyurbh膩ryyay膩 s膩rddha峁� pa帽c膩ha峁� ka峁嘺bhojan膩t || 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补, 11.122.
[19]:
[20]:
Ibid., 11.126-129.
[21]:
Ibid., 11.131,
[22]:
Ibid.,11.157-162.
[23]:
Ibid.,11.156.
[24]:
惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补, 11.139-142. The hunting of a King is not considered as a sinful matter, for the reason that hunting is the eternal duty of the King.
[25]:
Ibid., 11.145-146.
[26]:
upav膩s膩samartha艣cedruj膩 v膩 jaras膩pi v膩 |
迟补诲腻 pratyupav膩sa峁� ca bhojayeddv膩da艣a dvij膩n || 惭补丑腻苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺-迟补苍迟谤补, 11.151.
[27]:
Ibid., 11.144.
[28]:
Ibid., 11.153.
[29]:
Ibid., 11.155.
[30]:
Sanderson, Alexis, 鈥�艢补颈惫颈蝉尘 and Brahmanism in the Early Medieval Period鈥�, Gonda Lecture, 2006, p. 8-9.
[31]:
惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈, 11.57-67; and also see the expiatory chapters of the 顿丑补谤尘补蝉奴迟谤补s of 膧辫补蝉迟补尘产补, 痴补蝉颈峁ａ弓补, Gautama and 叠补耻诲丑腻测补苍补.
[32]:
[33]:
See Brahmay膩malatantra or Picumata ch. 45 and 罢补苍迟谤腻濒辞办补 ch. 5, 25 and 29. Also see 碍耻濒腻谤峁嘺惫补迟补苍迟谤补. Sanderson notes: 鈥淚n Vimalaprabodha鈥檚 account in the 碍腻岣纺玨耻濒补办谤补尘腻谤肠肠补苍补 of the Krama ritual in which male and female adepts are worshipped collectively with offerings of food and drink (Cakrakr墨岣峚) [鈥.鈥� Cf. 鈥淭he 艢补颈惫补 Literature鈥�, p. 64 and p. 43, fn. 166. And also he evidently remarks: 鈥淎 trident is smeared with the five jewels and menstrual blood the goddess is installed in it and worshipped鈥� See, 鈥溑毑咕北咕辈醭� and Tantric Tradition鈥�, p. 681. In this context Gavin Flood alludes: 鈥淎t a deeper layer of Trika liturgy, for spirituality elect, lies the 鈥榮ecret ritual鈥� (the 碍耻濒补测腻驳补) which involves offering the goddess meat and alcohol, and ritual sex between the practitioner and his female partner [鈥鈥�, Flood, Gavin, An Introduction to Hinduism, Manas Saikia for Foundation books, New Delhi, 1998, p. 168.
[34]:
Sanderson has evidently noted the conventional features of 碍耻濒补尘腻谤驳补. They are: (i) erotic ritual with a female companion (ii) sanguinary practices (iii) collective orgiastic rites celebrated by assemblies of initiates and woman of low caste. See 鈥淭he 艢补颈惫补 Literature鈥�, pp. 57-58.
[35]:
Michel M B Zrenner, The concept of 笔谤腻测补艣肠颈迟迟补 in the Introductory Passages of Ratnakara峁囜笉ika, M.Phil. Dissertation, Faculty of Philosophy, Ruprecht-Karls-University, Heidelberg, 2015, p. 82. For more discussions see, Lahiri, Tarapada, Crime and Punishment in Ancient India, Radiant Books, New Delhi, 1986 and Das Gupta, Ram Prasad, Crime and Punishment in Ancient India, Bharatiya Kalaprakashan, Delhi, 2007. And also see Lubin, Timothy, 鈥淧unishment and Expiation: Overlapping Domains in Brahmanical Law鈥�, Indological Tauranessia (33), eds. Nalini Balbir, et.al., Torine, AIT, 2007.
[36]:
Vide Dumont, Louis., Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1999.
[37]:
Cited by Patrick Olivelle, 鈥淐aste and Purity: A study in the Language of Dharma Literature鈥�, Tradition Pluralism and Identity, pp. 47-48.
[38]:
Idem.
[39]:
Ibid., p. 48.
[40]:
Brahmay膩malatantra or Picumata, ch.45.