365bet娱乐

WHEN, in the summer of 1919, I first approached Mr Tawney with the suggestion of reissuing his Magnum opus, little was decided about the form the Terminal Essay was to take. At that time there were so many immediate points connected with the work to be considered that any questions relating to the final volumes were to be deferred to a later date.

My own idea was to discuss briefly the manners and customs of the Hindus as illustrated in the work, together with some account of the different religious systems introduced. I then intended to speak of the debt Western literature owes to the East, and conclude with a few paragraphs on the classification of the world鈥檚 folk-tales. If room could be found, I was also going to give extracts from Speyer鈥檚 work on the 碍补迟丑腻-sarit-蝉腻驳补谤补.

At that time, however, the idea of a Foreword to each volume by some eminent scholar had not been formulated, nor had the number or length of my own notes been determined.

As the scheme of the work began to take definite shape, matters became more established, and a precedent was gradually formed in accordance with what seemed to be the best way of dealing with subjects as they arose. Thus, whenever some custom, ceremony, name or incident was thought to require a note, it seemed most practicable to give it on the same page, or, if too long, at the end of the chapter.

Following this plan, all the notes which would have been used for the Terminal Essay were given in their respective places. It also proved much better to give Speyer鈥檚 translations and suggestions in situ, and not relegate them to the present volume.

My idea of inviting a different scholar to write a Foreword to each volume has proved a great success, and my work is now enriched by nine excellent Essays, each dealing with the great collection from a different angle.

With the appearance of the present volume, and its most interesting Foreword by Sir Atul Chatterjee, which approaches the K.S.S. from the economic standpoint, I find practically every subject which I might have treated in this present Essay already dealt with in a manner which I could never have equalled.

All general questions have been dealt with by Sir Richard Temple, Sir George Grierson and Dr Thomas; the study and classification of folk-tales has received expert attention from Dr Gaster, Mr Wright, Professor Bloomfield and Professor Halliday; while Sir Denison Ross has contributed original research work on the Persian recension of the 笔补帽肠补迟补苍迟谤补. I think it will thus be agreed that, on the face of it, there seems little left to write about.

There is, however, one subject which, as yet, we have not discussed in sufficient detail鈥攖he 鈥渇rame-story鈥� of the 碍补迟丑腻-sarit-蝉腻驳补谤补, the arrangement and order of its contents, the sequence of events in the history of Udayana and 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补, the introduction of the numerous substories, and the resemblance the whole bears to the original 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻 of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补.

I shall, therefore, devote this Terminal Essay to a brief discussion of this subject.

 

The 鈥淔rame-Story鈥� of the 碍补迟丑腻-sarit-蝉腻驳补谤补

In order to determine, as far as possible, the changes any recension of a lost original text may have undergone, two distinct methods at once suggest themselves: a critical examination of the version in question; and a reconstruction of the original with the help of other versions known to be derived from that same original.

In some cases it may happen that both these methods cannot be applied, and until quite recently this has been so with Somadeva鈥檚 work. Thanks, however, to the researches of Professor Lac么te, the Nepalese recension of the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻, known as the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻-艣濒辞办补-蝉补峁僩谤补丑补, supplies us with evidence which can be compared with the results obtained from a close examination of the text of the 碍补迟丑腻-sarit-蝉腻驳补谤补.

If the evidence from the one source corroborates that from the other, some definite conclusions will result. It is, of course, unnecessary to discuss all the points raised by Lac么te in his Essai sur 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补, but I shall endeavour to lay before my readers the main arguments for his conclusions, as far as they concern the present work.

The method I have adopted throughout of affixing a number to each story has not only enabled the thread of a tale long since suspended to be picked up again with ease, but facilitates the separation of the Main Story from the mass of sub-stories introduced on every possible occasion.

Readers will have noticed to what a great extent the latter are in excess of the former. This fact alone should make us suspicious, particularly when we remember^[1] how, after the adventures of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 had been brought to a successful close by his coronation, the long series of Vikrama tales are introduced for no apparent reason. The final return to the Main Story^[2] is purely conventional, and clearly betrays the hand of a later editor.

Although many of the shorter sub-stories justify their position and introduction sufficiently well, there is a large number that fit uneasily into the places where we find them, and display no reason whatever for being there rather than anywhere else. This, of course, specially applies to whole collections, such as the 笔补帽肠补迟补苍迟谤补. Since studying Lac么te鈥檚 Essai, I am now convinced that it could never have been included in 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补鈥檚 original poem. A closer examination of Somadeva鈥檚 text of the Main Story will reveal many inconsistencies and inaccuracies which are largely hidden and unnoticed with the inclusion of so many sub-stories.

 

Book I: 碍补迟丑腻pitha (Vol. I, pp. 1-91).

Let us first, then, consider the Introduction to Somadeva. It will be remembered that it consists of a strange legend in which 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 himself plays a part. This fact did not diminish the belief of Brockhaus, Wilson and Lassen that such a person as 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 never existed in reality. Since their day, however, the advance in Sanskrit literary research has proved his existence beyond a doubt.

The evidence contained in the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻-艣濒辞办补-蝉补峁僩谤补丑补 only strengthens this opinion. We are introduced to 艢颈惫补 and 笔腻谤惫补迟墨 on Mount 碍补颈濒腻蝉补. In reply to a request from his wife for a story, 艢颈惫补 relates his own history in one of his former lives. This is received with scorn as an age-worn tale, and 艢颈惫补 is called a fraud. As compensation he promises to tell an entirely new tale that 笔腻谤惫补迟墨 could never have heard before鈥攖he history of the 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补蝉. Thus the hackneyed tales of gods, on the one hand, with their usual accompanying laudatory eulogies, and of men, on the other hand, with their sad and commonplace happenings, would both be avoided.

笔腻谤惫补迟墨 is placated, and, we are led to conjecture, listens in silence and interest to the long tale which 艢颈惫补 unfolds.

This fact is significant as showing that the author puts forward strong claims to originality. The well-known Vedic and Puranic legends are not to be given鈥攖here is something that even a goddess would get a thrill over!

Yet this high standard is hardly borne out when we see later what old tales have crept in.

碍峁�e尘别苍诲谤补 is more cautious, and allows 笔腻谤惫补迟墨 to raise no objections to 艢颈惫补鈥檚 first tale about himself, thus at once disarming criticism if well-known tales are introduced.

But let us proceed with the story.

笔耻峁�p补诲补苍迟补, one of 艢颈惫补鈥檚 骋补峁嘺蝉, overhears the tale by a trick and repeats it to his wife, who in turn tells it to 笔腻谤惫补迟墨. Thus 笔耻峁�p补诲补苍迟补 is discovered, and 笔腻谤惫补迟墨鈥檚 wrath is pitiless. Both the eavesdropper and his friend 惭腻濒测补惫腻苍, who pleaded on his behalf, are cursed to fall into mortal wombs.

笔耻峁�p补诲补苍迟补, now to be born in 碍补耻艣腻尘产墨 under the names of Vararuci and 碍腻迟测腻测补苍补, will obtain release from the curse only when he meets a 驰补办峁�a named 厂耻辫谤补迟墨办补 residing in the Vindhya forest under the name of 碍腻峁嘺产丑奴迟颈, and tells him the Great Tale. 惭腻濒测补惫腻苍 is to be born in 厂耻辫谤补迟颈峁ａ弓丑颈迟补 under the name of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补, and will be freed from the curse only when he has heard the tale from 碍腻峁嘺产丑奴迟颈.

In course of time 笔耻峁�p补诲补苍迟补-Vararuci-碍腻迟测腻测补苍补 meets 厂耻辫谤补迟墨办补-碍腻峁嘺产丑奴迟颈 and tells him the Great Tale; then, after also relating his life-story in detail, reaches his heavenly home once again.

It is, however, with the history of 惭腻濒测补惫腻苍-骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 that we are mainly concerned, for the legend may contain some clue to the real 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补. According to the story he is of semi-divine birth, his mother being a Br膩hman girl and his father a 狈腻驳补 prince. Thus he takes rank with the two other semi-divine authors鈥�痴腻濒尘墨办颈 of the 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 and 痴测腻蝉补 of the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补鈥攁nd he is actually mentioned in Sanskrit literature as forming the third of the Epic trio.

碍峁�e尘别苍诲谤补 wrote 尘补峁卝补谤墨蝉 (abridged versions) of them all. The 狈别辫腻濒补尘腻丑腻迟尘测补 draws a comparison between the (Nepalese) versions of the legends of 痴腻濒尘墨办颈 and 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补, showing how both men had to visit Nepal by divine command, the former to find a sacred spot worthy to be the cradle of the 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺, and the latter to fulfil certain conditions necessary for his return to his previous semi-divine state. Both men erect 濒颈峁単补蝉 before leaving Nepal.

To return to Somadeva鈥檚 version, we find that 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 becomes a minister of King 厂腻迟补惫腻丑补苍补 in a city named 厂耻辫谤补迟颈峁ａ弓丑颈迟补, capital of the 笔谤补迟颈峁ａ弓丑腻苍补 (Vol. I, p. 60). On one occasion the king shows his ignorance of grammar (p. 69), and 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 offers to teach him Sanskrit grammar in six years. Thereupon another minister, 艢补谤惫补惫补谤尘补苍, promises to do it in six months, or carry his shoes on his head for twelve years. 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 considers this impossible, and says that if he succeeds, he, in his turn, will renounce for ever Sanskrit, Prakrit, and his own vernacular dialect.

By the favour of the god 碍腻谤迟迟颈办别测补 a grammar known as 碍腻迟补苍迟谤补 and K膩l膩paka (on account of its conciseness) is revealed to 艢补谤惫补惫补谤尘补苍, who, with its help, wins the bet. In accordance with his vow, 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补, now reduced to silence, retires to the Vindhya forest. Here he learns the language of the 笔颈艣腻肠补蝉, and, on meeting Vararuci, writes down the Great Tale, as it is told him, in his own blood. (p. 89). This done, he sends it to King 厂腻迟补惫腻丑补苍补, who, however, rejects it as being written in a barbarous language. On hearing this, 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 is in despair, and reads out the whole work to the animals of the forest, who crowd round, lost in admiration at its beauty. As he reads, so he bums the tale page by page.

Meanwhile the king, owing to a sudden and unexplained lack of nutritive qualities in his food, has fallen sick. He is informed that the explanation of this curious state of affairs is to be found in a Br膩hman who is reciting a wonderful story in the forest, to which all the animals are listening motionless. Out of curiosity he goes to see for himself, and recognises 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补. He is, however, too late to save the Great Tale. All has been burnt, with the exception of the Adventures of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补. This 厂腻迟补惫腻丑补苍补 takes back to his palace, and, in order that these strange happenings shall not be lost to the world, himself composes 鈥渢he book named 碍补迟丑腻p墨峁環a, in order to show how the tale came to be first made known in the 笔补颈艣腻肠丑补 language鈥� (p. 91).

Thus the first book of the 碍补迟丑腻-sarit-蝉腻驳补谤补 ends. But what does it all mean? Who is this 厂腻迟补惫腻丑补苍补, at whose Court 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 became a minister? And what is the point of introducing a kind of grammatical controversy on the respective qualities of Sanskrit and Prakrit?

These are some of the queries that present themselves.

厂腻迟补惫腻丑补苍补 is the family name, in inscriptions, of the Andhra dynasty, whose home lay in the Deccan, between the rivers 骋辞诲腻惫补谤墨 and Kistna. Their capital was 笔谤补迟颈峁ａ弓丑腻苍补, the modern Paithan on the north bank of the 骋辞诲腻惫补谤颈. Thus 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补鈥檚 connection of king and capital is historically correct, although (as far as we can judge from Somadeva) he omits to mention which 厂腻迟补惫腻丑补苍补 is meant.

The third of the line, 艢腻迟补办补谤峁噄, is perhaps the most important of these kings. For he it was who wrested 鲍箩箩补测颈苍墨 from the 艢耻峁単补 king, 笔耻峁�y补尘颈迟谤补. The evidence for this is numismatic, but the horse-sacrifice performed by him would find justification only in some such important feat of arms. 艢腻迟补办补谤峁噄 gave his name to many subsequent Andhra kings, so that altogether his pre-eminence is undoubted.

But it seems most unlikely that our author would have omitted to mention, and even to enlarge on, such great victories, or to allude to the 础艣惫补尘别诲丑补. It looks, therefore, as if we must search among other 厂腻迟补惫腻丑补苍补s. A most important point to notice is that the Andhra kings were patrons of Prakrit, and that it was only late in the history of the dynasty that Sanskrit was finally accepted as the Court language, and Prakrit was ousted from its former place of honour. Among the 厂腻迟补惫腻丑补苍补s there was one king who became specially famous for being the centre of a literary Court and for being himself a poet of no mean order^[3]鈥攁nd that was 贬腻濒补. His date, though still uncertain, is considered to have been about the second or third century A.D.^[4] Whether he finally became a convert to the use of Sanskrit we do not know, but grammatical controversies could not have been unknown. If it was not 贬腻濒补 himself whom the legend of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 makes ignorant of Sanskrit grammar, it is one of the succeeding 厂腻迟补惫腻丑补苍补s; but in connecting any tale about the introduction of Sanskrit in the place of Prakrit with a 厂腻迟补惫腻丑补苍补, it is 贬腻濒补 that at once would be thought of.

A change so important and far-reaching as the use of a different language at the Court, and in literature generally, would, of course, take a considerable time to effect.

As patrons of Prakrit the 厂腻迟补惫腻丑补苍补s would be the most vigorous opposers of such an innovation, and it is only in the time of 顿补峁囜笉颈苍 (sixth century) that we find the use of Prakrit becoming rare. The fact that in subsequent centuries native opinion looks upon 贬腻濒补 as the central figure of Prakrit literature is surely a sufficient explanation of why 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 himself is represented in the legend as a native of 笔谤补迟颈峁ａ弓丑腻苍补. Such evidence as exists points to 鲍箩箩补测颈苍墨, or rather 碍补耻艣腻尘产墨, as the birthplace of the real 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补; but once he is connected with 贬腻濒补, the champion of Prakrit, no further excuse for the work being in Pai艣膩ch墨 would be needed.

It is only after the 碍腻迟补苍迟谤补 grammar has converted the king to Sanskrit that he regards Pai艣膩ch墨 as a barbarous language. Whether the real 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 and 贬腻濒补, or 贬腻濒补 and 艢补谤惫补惫补谤尘补苍, were contemporaries or not in no way affects the argument, but it seems highly probable that 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 antedates 贬腻濒补, and that the growing legend used as an introduction to his work came into being later. It was well known by the sixth century, as 顿补峁囜笉颈苍 not only refers to the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻, but to the legend of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 as well.

It now remains to mention Vararuci and his strange story, which, for some reason or other, has become connected with the legend of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补. The stories of the two men are quite distinct. They never meet in the tale, and Vararuci could disappear, with his complete history, without upsetting the story in the least.

But the name of Vararuci is famous in connection with both Sanskrit and Prakrit grammar, and its introduction would merely assist in bringing the most famous grammarians on the stage at once. It then needed some clever invention to link the two entirely separate tales together as a single legend. On earth 碍腻峁嘺产丑奴迟颈 is the common point of contact. But in the realms of heaven the person of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 has been divided into two. It will be remembered that it is 笔耻峁�p补诲补苍迟补-Vararuci who originally overhears the tale and is cursed by 笔腻谤惫补迟墨. Surely, then, it is he who should have been made to repeat it on earth. Yet not only is it not so, but he receives less punishment than his friend 惭腻濒测补惫腻苍-骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补, whose only crime was to plead for him.

Finally, Vararuci is born at 鲍箩箩补测颈苍墨, the very place where internal evidence places the birthplace of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补. From all these considerations Lac么te has come to the conclusion that the form of the legend as reproduced by the Kashmirian poets is purely a Kashmirian work.

鈥�... dans la forme originate,鈥� says Lac么te (Essai sur 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补, p. 33),

鈥淰araruci n鈥檡 paraissait pas et un seul 驳补峁嘺 茅tait maudit, le futur 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补. C鈥檈st ce dernier 茅tat de la l茅gende qui devait 锚tre courant dans l鈥橧nde.鈥�

All the evidence certainly seems to point to this conclusion 鈥攖he compiler or editor has been at work, and has produced a composite legend which, by its inclusion of grammatical disputes on the one hand, and lively sub-stories on the other hand, would appeal to both savant and bourgeois. The legend of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补, as told in the Nepalese version by Budhasv膩min, confirms the belief in a much simpler original form than we find in Somadeva. There is only one Ga峁嘺, and he is known as 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 in his mortal life. Such alterations as there are can easily be explained by remembering that one of the chief objects the Nepalese had in view was to connect the names of heroes with their holy places of pilgrimage, and allow their actions to further sanctify those places.

The important point of this evidence is that Budhasv膩min dates from the eighth or ninth century, and thus antedates the Kashmirian poets. The work had not received the attention of editors who padded out the text with other collections, and thus the form of tales in the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻-艣濒辞办补-sa峁僩r aha is much more likely to be closer to the original of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补.

The title of this first Book of Somadeva is 碍补迟丑腻p墨峁環膩, which means 鈥淚ntroduction鈥� or 鈥淧reface.鈥�

The second Book has a very similar name: in fact the two words 办补迟丑腻辫墨迟丑补 and 办补迟丑腻尘耻办丑补 differ in meaning little more than our 鈥淚ntroduction鈥� and 鈥淔oreword.鈥� But why should a work contain two introductions? Lac么te suggests that if, as is probable, the legend was added to the work later, a 碍补迟丑腻mukha was already there. The next best thing would be to use another word with almost exactly the same meaning.

Book II: 碍补迟丑腻mukha (Vol. I, pp. 94-189).

In accordance with the title of this Book, we should have expected it to contain merely introductory matter, such as the name of the narrator, the scope and object of his work, with possibly some laudatory reference to King Udayana and his son 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补. In fact we should have expected it to have resembled other 鈥�碍补迟丑腻mukhas,鈥� such as that which introduces the 笔补帽肠补迟补苍迟谤补. We have already seen that Somadeva omitted the 碍补迟丑腻mukha of the 笔补帽肠补迟补苍迟谤补, probably because the tales could quite easily be put into the mouths of characters in the Main Story. In this case, however, he has retained the title which he doubtless found in the texts he followed, although in the original 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻 the subject-matter may have been different and more in accordance with the usually accepted contents of a 碍补迟丑腻mukha. More than half the Book contains sub-stories which have but little connection with the Main Story, which, in order to make room for them, has had to be very considerably condensed. Otherwise the Book would have swelled to an undue size.

Thus we find the Main Story in this second Book crowded with incidents. We are hurried through the hero鈥檚 birth and childhood, and are introduced to 颁补峁囜笉补尘补丑腻蝉别苍补, King of 鲍箩箩补测颈苍墨, who is anxious to marry his daughter 痴腻蝉补惫补诲补迟迟腻 to our hero. The schemes and counter-schemes to obtain this end follow, and finally the wedding takes place at 碍补耻艣腻尘产墨. Udayana proves a fickle husband, but we are clearly given only a very condensed form of his amours. The Book ends, then, on a dramatic note, and we naturally turn to the next one to discover how things turn out.

 

Book III: 尝腻惫腻峁嘺办补 (Vol. II, pp. 1-116).

We are not disappointed. The Book opens with the lamentations of Udayana鈥檚 ministers at his desultory life鈥攕pent either with women or in the hunting-field. They fear he will never enlarge his realm, and are anxious for him to begin a series of conquests. Their eyes are first fixed upon Magadha, and their knowledge of political statecraft tells them that a marriage with 笔补诲尘腻惫补迟墨, daughter of Pradyota, King of Magadha, would be the easiest method to employ in the winning of their object. 痴腻蝉补惫补诲补迟迟腻 is naturally rather in the way for such an alliance, but a plot is cleverly engineered, and finally Udayana marries his second wife.

After all is smoothed over, and everyone is conciliated, the king, now roused from his idleness, determines on conquest. Accordingly he marches east to the sea, and circles India in a clockwise rotation, finally returning to 碍补耻艣腻尘产墨.

The Book being almost entirely devoted to the 笔补诲尘腻惫补迟墨 incident is much more easily condensed than was the case in the former Book. Hence ample opportunity occurs for the inclusion of a large number of sub-stories. The chief feature of interest in this Book, from an historic point of view, is Udayana鈥檚 conquest. We hear very little about it really, and, with the one exception of Brahmadatta, no particulars of the conquered kings, their countries, or deeds of prowess of the conquerors are forthcoming. The first point to be considered is the names of the people he conquers. He sets out eastwards to Benares, turns south, sweeps westwards and occupies Sindh. Among the tribes defeated are the Mlecchas, 罢耻谤耻峁�k补蝉, 笔腻谤补蝉墨办补蝉 and 贬奴峁嘺蝉 (Vol. II, pp. 93, 94).

Now Udayana was an ancient king of legendary times, yet here we find him fighting with peoples of comparatively recent times鈥擬ohammedans, Turks, Persians and Huns. In fact the 贬奴峁嘺蝉 did not appear till the second half of the fifth century. Surely he should have fought with such peoples as the Yavanas and 艢补办补蝉. The explanation seems simple. The peoples mentioned by Somadeva are those of the western and north-western frontiers, whose names would be known and appreciated in Somadeva鈥檚 time, and which, moreover, a Kashmirian would be most likely to employ.

Lac么te points out that the places supposed to have been conquered by Udayana constitute a 辫谤补诲补办峁�i峁嘺: the campaign is arranged like a pilgrimage. Central India is always kept on the right; and finally he visits 础濒补办腻, the city of the god Kuvera. Not a word is said as to how he gets there. No aerial chariot, magic shoes or any similar contrivance appears. Now several of the sub-stories in this Book are concerned with spells to enable one to fly through the air, yet we are given no clue as to why especially they are found in this Book. Might it not be that ancient tradition associated together Udayana鈥檚 campaign and some story of aerial transit? This would certainly explain the journey to 础濒补办腻. So perhaps in the original 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻 Udayana made a kind of aerial pilgrimage. In support of such a theory we have the fact that nothing more is said of all these vast conquests.

In fact, when finally Udayana leaves the world of mortals and gives all his possessions to 骋辞辫腻濒补办补, we find (Vol. VII, p. 102) that these consist only of 碍补耻艣腻尘产墨. Surely we should be justified in expecting a long list of conquests to be enumerated!

The Kashmirian editors seem to have been very busy with this Book.

 

Book IV: 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补janana (Vol. II, pp. 125-165).

The story continues in due chronological sequence. 痴腻蝉补惫补诲补迟迟腻 longs for a son, and, after her pregnant whim for aerial chariots has been satisfied, 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 is born.

As in previous Books, the sub-stories occupy a very large part of the text.

 

Book V: 颁补迟耻谤诲腻谤颈办腻 (Vol. II, pp. 170-239).

As we have already seen, Books II, III and IV form an uninterrupted series of events in the history of Udayana, but now comes a very distinct break.

狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 has been proclaimed a future king of the 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补蝉, and this fact is an excuse for 艢补办迟颈惫别驳补, a 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补 prince, to relate in full how he reached his present high position. The tale, with its sub-stories, occupies the whole Book, and is a unity in itself. Whether it was in 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补鈥檚 original work in the same form as it appears here, or whether it has been compiled out of some of the adventures which formed part of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补鈥檚 own adventures, are questions it seems impossible to answer.

The only point to stress is that the contents of this Book are entirely unconnected with previous or subsequent matter, and could be removed and inserted anywhere else without upsetting the text at all.

 

Book VI: 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻 (Vol. Ill, pp. 1-149).

The curious thing about this Book lies in the opening lines. Here we are informed that it is 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补^[5] himself who from this point onwards is the true narrator, and that he tells his own history on a certain occasion after his coronation.

The actual words are:

鈥淣ow hear the heavenly adventures which 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补, speaking of himself in the third person, told from the very beginning, after he had obtained the sovereignty of the 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补蝉 and had been questioned about the story of his life on some occasion or other by the seven 峁氠梗is and their wives.鈥�

What does it all mean? It looks like the beginning of a new tale altogether, yet it is in reality a direct continuation of the story of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 when last he was mentioned. So far it has been told in the third person, yet here is a note which specially tells us that henceforward 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 will narrate the tale in the third person. Now if it had said, in the first person, a distinct difference would naturally have been noticed at once. The value of this curious sentence, then, is quite inexplicable. If it had not appeared at all, we should have noticed nothing, for the tale would have gone straight on鈥攕till in the third person.

Why this sudden wish to introduce 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 as the teller of his own story? Perhaps the author of the Kashmirian recension thought that this was in accordance with tradition, and he was anxious at least to give some indication of this well-known fact. Even if this were so, we are still in the dark as to why it is inserted at this particular place, making it look like the very beginning of the whole work.

We are told nothing as to the occasion on which 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 was asked questions by the 峁氠梗is. In fact the whole matter would remain a mystery if we were not to look ahead and find that full details of the visit to the 峁氠梗is are given in Book XVI, chapters cxi, cxii.

Here we learn (Vol. VIII, p. 103) that after Udayana鈥檚 death, 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 spent the rainy season at 碍补艣测补辫补鈥檚 hermitage with his uncle, 骋辞辫腻濒补办补. Here it is that the 峁氠梗is are assembled, and, in answer to their questions, he begins to relate his adventures.

Yet, if we are to believe the opening lines of Book VI, it was 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 who had been speaking all the time!

It is obvious, then, that Book XVI must have originally stood before Book VI, and, in fact, have led up to the statement that has caused all the trouble. It is not Somadeva who is to blame. He has merely followed his texts. It is the Kashmirian compilers who have purposely changed the order of the Books. Perhaps they worked from composite and incomplete texts, or perhaps they considered that the new order was better fitted to embrace all the new matter to be incorporated. Whatever may have been the true explanation, there can be no doubt that the order of the Books in the Kashmirian recension does not agree with that originally laid down by 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补.

The early part of the Book is taken up with the story of the Buddhist king, 碍补濒颈峁単补诲补迟迟补, and his daughter, 碍补濒颈峁単补-蝉别苍腻. Many sub-stories are introduced, several of obvious Buddhist origin. The tale now centres on Ka濒颈峁単补蝉en膩. With the help of her Apsaras friend 厂辞尘补辫谤补产丑腻 she sees Udayana, who immediately falls in love with her.

His faithful minister, 驰补耻驳补苍诲丑补谤腻测补峁嘺, however, considers such a marriage undesirable for reasons of state, and finally manages to make it impossible by proving Ka濒颈峁単补蝉en膩 to be unchaste. A daughter is born to her by her lover, the 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补 Madanavega. This child was in reality a son, but by 艢颈惫补鈥檚 orders was replaced at birth by a girl who was an incarnation of Rati. Her name is to be 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻, and she is the destined wife of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 All this is told in detail, but the rest of the Book is greatly condensed, and the events of the next ten or twelve years鈥攖he time to allow 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻 to grow up鈥攁re all crammed into Chapter XXXIV. In the next chapter we are in Book VII, and our hero is a full-grown man!

Although by far the greater portion of the Book deals with Ka濒颈峁単补蝉en膩, yet it takes its title from 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻. It seems obvious that the original work must have been much longer, and that the second half of the Book as it appears in Somadeva is a mere summary.

In fact there are places where we can clearly see the ruthless hand of the Kashmirian compiler, reducing what must have been incidents of considerable length to a single sentence.

For instance, we read in Chapter XXXIV (Vol. Ill, p. 140) that one day 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 goes to a garden called 狈腻驳补vana. What for? Nothing happens at all, except that he worships the snakes. It surely must have been the beginning of some adventure now entirely suppressed.

Even in the first part of the Book there are signs of mischievous alterations in the work. Why is 碍补濒颈峁単补诲补迟迟补 such a nonentity, and why does he make no effort at all to protect his daughter after her trouble with Madanavega and the childish scruples of 驰补耻驳补苍诲丑补谤腻测补峁嘺? Numerous other examples of improbabilities in the text could be given, but I think sufficient has been said to show that 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补鈥檚 original must have been very different to what we find in the 碍补迟丑腻-sarit-蝉腻驳补谤补.

 

Book VII: 搁补迟苍补辫谤补产丑腻 (Vol. III, pp. 155-300).

The first part of this Book is taken up with 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补鈥檚 marriage to a 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤墨 whose name gives the Book its title. He is taken in a magic chariot to heaven for the wedding. This is the first time we hear of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 leaving the earth. There is no connection between this adventure and the end of the previous Book.

With Chapter XLII (Vol. Ill, p. 259) begins the adventures of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 in search of Princess 碍补谤辫奴谤颈办腻. They are far more important than the affair with 搁补迟苍补辫谤补产丑腻, and would much more fitly have given their name to the Book. It seems likely that the two parts formed separate Books in the original 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻.

 

Book VIII: 厂奴谤测补辫谤补产丑补 (Vol. IV, pp. 1-121).

Like Book V, this stands alone, and could be inserted anywhere as a separate story. It exhibits the highest flights of an unbridled imagination, and can be regarded as a great hotchpotch of ancient Buddhist myths and popular Hindu beliefs.

 

Book IX: 础濒补峁卥腻谤补惫补迟墨 (Vol. IV, pp. 122-251).

The first part of this Book is taken up with another 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤墨 marriage鈥攖his time to 础濒补峁卥腻谤补惫补迟墨, who gives her name to the Book. It is in no way connected with Book VIII, and could go in anywhere. The second part of the Book, beginning with Chapter LIV (Vol. IV, p. 184), stands as a complete entity, and is of considerable interest. It deals with 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补鈥檚 visit to 痴颈峁ａ箛耻, and resembles the journey of the brothers Ekata, Dvita and Trita and of 狈腻谤补诲补 to the same 鈥渨hite island,鈥� as related in the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 (xii, 138, 139). The allusion in these passages to the worship of Christian communities in the East has already been pointed out.^[6] Lac么te considers that the accounts of the visit to the 鈥淲hite Island,鈥� as found in the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 and the K.S.S., agree sufficiently well to suspect a common origin. Either the latter has borrowed from the former, or the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 has taken the episode from the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻, or possibly both versions have been independently developed from a narrative derived from some traveller who had visited the Christian communities in Bactria.

 

Book X: 艢补办迟颈测补艣补蝉 (Vol. V, pp. 1-192).

There is no connection between this Book and the previous one. After a series of tales dealing with the favourite subject of 鈥渇ickleness of women,鈥� introduced on the slightest pretext, we once again find 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 marrying a 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤墨. The wedding cannot be arranged for a month, and so an exceptionally large number of stories, including the whole of the 笔补帽肠补迟补苍迟谤补, can be successfully introduced.

 

Book XI: 痴别濒腻 (Vol. V, pp. 196-204).

This deals with 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补鈥檚 visit to 痴补颈艣腻办丑补 and his subsequent marriage to Jayendra蝉别苍腻. The story of the merchant and his wife, 痴别濒腻, gives its name to the Book. But why it is so very short and devoid of any continuity is impossible to say.

It looks as if it had been purposely compressed out of all recognition, in order, perhaps, to make up for the very long Books that precede and follow it.

 

Book XII: 艢补艣腻峁卥补惫补迟墨 (Vol. VI, pp. 1-221, and Vol. VII, pp. 1-193).

This Book has been discussed already in Vol. VII, pp. 194-196. We saw there that it is obviously in its wrong position, because we are continually told that 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 has lost his beloved 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻; yet not only do we know nothing about this, but we are definitely told at the beginning of the Book (Vol. VI, p. 9) that it is 尝补濒颈迟补濒辞肠补苍腻 who is lost.

Our attention, however, is taken off such trifles (!) by the appearance of the hermit 笔颈艣补峁単补箩补峁璦, who proceeds to relate the huge tale of 惭峁沢腻峁卥补诲补迟迟补 (Vol. VI, p. 10 et seq.), which stretches to p. 192 of Vol. VII.

The Book finishes without solving the mystery in the least.

 

Book XIII: 惭补诲颈谤腻惫补迟墨 (Vol. VIII, pp. 1-17).

This short Book is a continuation of the last, for we find 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 still disconsolate at the loss of his beloved, who is now definitely stated to be 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻, and not 尝补濒颈迟补濒辞肠补苍腻. The latter unhappy lady also is lost, but 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 seems to care little about her.

He meets two Br膩hmans who tell tales of how they have successfully overcome difficulties, and so encourage 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 in his search. The heroine of the first Br膩hman鈥檚 story gives her name to the Book. When the stories are finished, lo! 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补鈥檚 ministers turn up, and so does 尝补濒颈迟补濒辞肠补苍腻 (nobody knows how or whence, and nobody seems to care!), and all proceed to 碍补耻艣腻尘产墨. We have no clue whatsoever as to the loss of 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻.

 

Book XIV: Pa帽ca (Vol. VIII, pp. 21-69).

The long-awaited explanation of the loss of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补鈥檚 chief wife, 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻, is found at the very beginning of this Book. She suddenly disappears without a trace, leaving 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 distracted with grief. He searches for her in vain. 痴别驳补惫补迟墨, a certain unmarried 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤墨, is anxious to obtain 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 for a husband, and, taking the form of his lost wife, manages to trick 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 into going through the marriage ceremony again. The fraud is soon discovered, but she is soon forgiven on promising 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 to help to find the real 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻, who, it appears, has been carried off by her brother, a 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补 named 惭腻苍补蝉补惫别驳补.

Accordingly 痴别驳补惫补迟墨 carries him through the air to the mountain 膧峁Ｄ佱笉丑补辫耻谤补, whither 惭腻苍补蝉补惫别驳补 has hastened to kill them both. A magical combat ensues, in which 痴别驳补惫补迟墨 is victorious. For safety she places 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 in a dry well in the city of the Gandharvas, and there leaves him (Vol. VIII, p. 27). He is soon rescued and, by his skill of playing the lyre, wins the king鈥檚 daughter 骋补苍诲丑补谤惫补诲补迟迟腻 for his wife. He seems to have entirely forgotten all about 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻, and settles down to a married life of heavenly bliss. Suddenly a 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤墨 appears, and takes 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 through the air to the city of 艢谤腻惫补蝉迟墨, with the intention of marrying him later to her daughter 础箩颈苍腻惫补迟墨.

While waiting in a garden, King Prasenajit comes along and marries him to his daughter 叠丑补驳墨谤补迟丑补测补艣补蝉. One night 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 hears a low voice outside his sleeping-room. It is that of a beautiful 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤墨 named 笔谤补产丑腻惫补迟墨, who moans the unhappy fate of 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻 in having so fickle a husband. At last 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 is roused by the mention of her name, and begs to be led to her presence. Accordingly 笔谤补产丑腻惫补迟墨 flies with him through the air, and, by cleverly flying round a fire, becomes the wife of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 Although 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 is anxious to consummate the marriage, 笔谤补产丑腻惫补迟墨 says he must wait, and takes him to 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻 (Vol. VIII, p. 36). General rejoicings follow; but 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补, who is now wearing the shape of 笔谤补产丑腻惫补迟墨, is soon threatened by 惭腻苍补蝉补惫别驳补, who discovers his presence as 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 assumes his own shape. The supreme court of the 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补蝉 judge the case, and 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 wins. 惭腻苍补蝉补惫别驳补 is far from satisfied, and a quarrel ensues. 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 escapes with 笔谤补产丑腻惫补迟墨, but 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻 remains a prisoner with 惭腻苍补蝉补惫别驳补. While 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 and 笔谤补产丑腻惫补迟墨 are living together, 础箩颈苍腻惫补迟墨 turns up with her mother and marries 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 He returns to 碍补耻艣腻尘产墨 with the two wives, where he is soon joined by 痴别驳补惫补迟墨 and 骋补苍诲丑补谤惫补诲补迟迟腻 and all the relations of his various wives. A great campaign is decided upon, before which 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 has to obtain certain magical sciences from 艢颈惫补. While so engaged five (辫补帽肠补) 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤墨s vow to marry him all together. This incident gives the name to the whole Book. After another marriage a great battle is fought. More marriages follow, including that to the five 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤墨s. 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 is now informed that before overcoming his final vow it is necessary for him to become possessed of the seven jewels of the Cakravartin. He wins the magic sandalwood-tree, but his obtaining of the other 鈥渏ewels鈥� is reserved for Book XV.

It has been considered necessary to give a somewhat detailed 谤茅蝉耻尘茅 of this Book, because, with the exceptions of the brief sub-stories 164, 165 and 166, it is entirely devoted to the Main Story.

There are several important points to notice. In the first place, the Book is crowded with detail. Marriages and adventures follow one upon the other at an enormous rate. In the second place, we must remember that they are all centred round the disappearance of 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻. The Book, then, is really a cycle of marriages, with intermediate adventures. In this cycle the incident of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补鈥檚 marriage to the five 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤墨s is comparatively unimportant, yet it gives its name to the whole Book. This fact, added to the obvious condensing of so many incidents in order to cram them into a single Book, makes it practically certain that 鈥榦riginally each marriage must have formed the subject and title of a separate Book.

We have had several examples of this already鈥�e.g. Books VII, IX and X. Any doubt as to the probability of this is surely removed by finding that this is exactly what has happened in the case of the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻-艣濒辞办补-蝉补峁僩谤补丑补. Each marriage has a Book to itself, and is recorded with far greater detail than in the K.S.S. On the evidence given by the K.S.S. itself we can definitely state that the present Book (and also Book XV, q.v.) originally must have come before Book XII, and consequently also Book XIII, which is a continuation of Book XII.

If this were not so, the events in Books XII and XIII could never have happened, for 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻 would not have been lost, and consequently the search, leading to all the other marriages and adventures, would never have taken place.

 

Book XV: 惭补丑腻产丑颈峁�e办补 (Vol. VIII, pp. 70-93).

This is a direct continuation of the previous Book. 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 obtains the seven jewels, and starts on the last of his expeditions. After sundry adventures and vicissitudes he conquers his sole remaining enemy, Mandaradeva. 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 proceeds to consolidate his empire. He marries five 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤墨s (a repetition of a similar incident in the last Book), and prepares for his coronation on the 峁氠梗补产丑补 mountain.

The coronation takes place, and of his two dozen odd wives, 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻 alone is crowned with 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 Udayana, 痴腻蝉补惫补诲补迟迟腻 and 笔补诲尘腻惫补迟墨 are invited, and with a blare of trumpets and general rejoicing the Book ends. Not only the Book, we would imagine, but the entire work.^[7] Yet we find three more Books still unopened.

 

Book XVI: 厂耻谤补迟补尘补帽箩补谤墨 (Vol. VIII, pp. 94-131).

Years have passed. One night 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 has an evil dream, and, on awakening, calls upon the science named 笔谤补箩帽补辫迟颈 for an explanation. He is told all the news of his family in 碍补耻艣腻尘产墨. Udayana, his wives and ministers are dead, 骋辞辫腻濒补办补 has given his kingdom to 笔腻濒补办补, and has retired to the Black Mountain in company with the hermits of 碍补艣测补辫补. 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 hastens there to see his uncle, and remains during the rainy season.

With Chapter CXII begins the incident of Ityaka鈥檚 attempted ravishing of 厂耻谤补迟补尘补帽箩补谤墨, who gives her name to the Book. An inquiry is started. It turns out to be a family matter, and the evidence of 笔腻濒补办补, his son, and his minister are needed. They accordingly are sent for, and the court sits. Evidence is found against Ityaka, but, by the request of the hermits, his life is spared.

The next chapter, the last of this Book, deals with the history of 罢腻谤腻惫补濒辞办补, and has nothing whatsoever to do with what precedes or follows. At the end of it 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 is still on the Black Mountain among the 峁氠梗is. Here, then, is the occasion on which he is among the 峁氠梗is already referred to in Book VI, and on which he is requested to relate 鈥渇rom the beginning鈥� all his adventures.

If, then, Chapters CXI and CXII preceded Book VI, all would be clear.

 

Book XVII: 笔补诲尘腻惫补迟墨 (Vol. VIII, pp. 132-209).

The 峁氠梗is now ask 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 how he could bear his separation from 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻. This is merely an excuse to introduce the story of 惭耻办迟腻辫丑补濒补办别迟耻 and Padmavat墨, which takes up the rest of the Book. It is supposed to have been told during the period covered by Book XIV. Thus it is not in its proper chronological order.

 

Book XVIII: Vi峁�ama艣ila (Vol. IX, pp. 1-86).

This last Book also is out of place, as it is merely another tale told to 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 while he was separated from 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻. But it is even more extraneous, as it deals with 痴颈办谤补尘腻诲颈迟测补, who was much later than the period to which Udayana and 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 must be assigned.

Somadeva (and perhaps even the Kashmirian compilers) places this Book at the very end as a kind of Appendix, for it would at once be apparent that heroes who were supposed to date from the time of Buddha could not listen to tales about a king as recent as 痴颈办谤补尘腻诲颈迟测补.

As already mentioned, the final return to the Main Story is purely conventional. So tame and unconvincing is the conclusion of this work, especially after the 鈥済rand finale鈥� at the end of Book XV, that the most casual reader must at once suspect textual commutation on a fairly large scale.

 

(Conclusion)

Before we compare the order of the Books as found in the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻-尘补帽箩补谤墨 and 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻-艣濒辞办补-蝉补峁僩谤补丑补, with a view to reconstructing as far as possible the original work of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补, it will perhaps be best to arrange in tabular form the points we have noticed in the foregoing pages:

Name of Book (comments)

1. 碍补迟丑腻p墨峁環a
(Legend of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补. Complete in itself.)

2. 碍补迟丑腻mukha
3. 尝腻惫腻峁嘺办补
4. 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补janana
(Uninterrupted series of events describing period from birth of Udayana to that of his son N.)

5. 颁补迟耻谤诲腻谤颈办腻
(痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补 tale. Quite separate. Could go in anywhere.)

6. 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻
(Unconnected. Apparently a fresh beginning. Must originally have stood after the first part of Book XVI, because of 峁氠梗is incident.)

7. 搁补迟苍补辫谤补产丑腻
(Two love adventures. Probably once formed two separate Books.)

8. 厂奴谤测补辫谤补产丑补
(Like Book V. 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补 tale. Quite separate. Could go in anywhere.)

9. 础濒补峁卥腻谤补惫补迟墨
(Two distinct divisions. Both separate and unconnected.)

10. 艢补办迟颈测补艣补蝉
(Unconnected. Another marriage. Excuse for numerous sub-tales.)

11. 痴别濒腻
(Another marriage. Very, and suspiciously, short.)

12. 艢补艣腻峁卥补惫补迟墨
(Text shows Book must be in its wrong place. 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补鈥檚 chief wife is lost.)

13. 惭补诲颈谤腻惫补迟墨
(Direct continuation. Wife is still lost.)

14. Pa帽ca
(Mystery of loss explained. 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 marries several other women.)

15. 惭补丑腻产丑颈峁�e办补
(Direct continuation. Leads to coronation. Finale.)

16. 厂耻谤补迟补尘补帽箩补谤墨
(Another unconnected Book. First part helps to explain Book VI and should precede it. Second part quite separate. Could go in anywhere.)

17. 笔补诲尘腻惫补迟墨
(Out of place. Told during period of Book XIV.)

18. Vi峁�ama艣ila
(Out of place. Told during period of Book XIV, but is also an obvious addition, and could not have been in the original.)

We can now see the situation at a glance. Books II, III and IV form a group; V and VIII are unconnected and both 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补 narratives; VI looks like a new beginning, but lacks any explanatory introduction; VII, IX, X and XI are marriages, more or less unconnected; XII and XIII are closely connected, but must come after XIV and XV (also connected), and consequently also after XVII and XVIII, because the events they relate happened during the period covered by XIV. The remaining Book, XVI, must be regarded as of two distinct divisions, the first supplying the necessary introductory matter to VI, and the second being quite unconnected.

It will thus be seen that the critical inspection of the work as presented by Somadeva shows without doubt that the work has undergone much reshuffling as far as the order of Books is concerned.

We can now turn to the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻-尘补帽箩补谤墨 and see if the order followed by 碍峁�e尘别苍诲谤补 in any way confirms our theories.

The first five Books correspond to those of Somadeva. Then the differences begin. We notice Books V and VIII are put together. This is followed by 痴别濒腻, the very short Book, but the chief interest here lies in the fact that it finishes with the loss of 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻. In the K.S.S. this incident is found at the beginning of Book XIV, Pa帽ca. Thus, so far, we find 碍峁�e尘别苍诲谤补鈥檚 order much better than that adopted by Somadeva. After 痴别濒腻 he has placed Books XII, XVIII, XIII, XVII, thus obtaining a correct sequence of events, which is lacking in Somadeva. Book XIV follows, but with its opening incident transferred to the end of Book XI (痴别濒腻), as has been already mentioned.

Thus we see that our complaints about the order of the Books in the K.S.S. are fully justified by what we find in 碍峁�e尘别苍诲谤补. The question which at once presents itself is, Why did not Somadeva copy the order in 碍峁�e尘别苍诲谤补 instead of changing it and so introducing muddling anachronisms? The answer would appear to be that he took what he considered to be the lesser of two evils; for although 碍峁�e尘别苍诲谤补 has followed a better order of Books dependent upon the loss of 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻, he has had to pay dearly for it in the rest of his work. For here we find chaos, and no attempt made to remove it. Such inconsistency makes us chary of giving 碍峁�e尘别苍诲谤补 credit for the arrangement of the first part of the work. He probably left it as he found it. Somadeva, on the other hand, saw how unconnected his material was, but preferred to put together only such chapters as were undoubtedly connected. We have seen how Book XV follows directly on to XIV; but 碍峁�e尘别苍诲谤补, by his placing of Pa帽ca, has been forced to separate them by other three Books, thus introducing all kinds of improbabilities and chronological impossibilities.

The incident of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 relating his adventures to the 峁氠梗is in the third person must have seemed entirely upsetting to 碍峁�e尘别苍诲谤补, and he gets over the difficulty by omitting it altogether. As Lac么te has remarked, the above clearly shows that the Kashmirian 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻 was a compilation and not an original work.

I think we must attribute the unsatisfactory state of the text of the Kashmirian work very largely to the simple fact that the compilers (there may have been several at different dates) were not trying to reconstruct in their entirety the adventures of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 They had a very different object in view鈥攏amely, to use the story as a frame for all the tales they could collect together. The better-known incidents would have to appear in some detail, while many of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补鈥檚 love-adventures could be ignored or highly compressed. The result has its pros and cons. On the one hand we are given a jumbled and very defective version of the story of 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补, but on the other hand we have that huge mass of tales which sheds so much light on the manners and customs, the folklore and beliefs of a country so poor in historical documentary evidence.

True, the 笔补帽肠补迟补苍迟谤补 and Vet膩la辫补帽肠补vi峁兣沘ti are found in separate collections, but scholars are not yet agreed as to the respective values of the different versions.

That Somadeva was very conscious of the difficulties in the text or texts he was using is clear from his introductory remarks (Ocean, Vol. I, p. 2), where he says:

鈥�... the observance of propriety and natural connection, and the joining together of the portions of the poem so as not to interfere with the spirit of the stories, are as far as possible kept in view....鈥�

The meaning of this is not perfectly clear, and great importance should be laid on the correct translation of the passage.

Many suggestions have been made, but Lac么te alone has treated it in the light of his extensive critical examination of the whole subject, taking into consideration all debatable grammatical queries and all possible modes of construction.

His translation of the full passage is as follows:鈥�

鈥淭el l鈥檕riginal, telle cette copie; pas d鈥檜ne ligne m锚me elle ne s鈥檈n 茅carte. Je comprime le volume du recueil et je traduis, voil脿 toute la diff茅rence. Attentif 脿 observer, autant que je le puis, les convenances (litt茅raires) et l鈥檕rdre logique, en ayant soin de n鈥檌nterrompre ni le r茅cit ni le ton des sentiments, je ne le suis pas moins 脿 disposer une portion de po猫me r茅gulier. Mes efforts ne vont pas 脿 gagner une r茅putation d鈥檃rtiste consomm茅; je veux simplement qu鈥檕n puisse retenir sans peine ce vaste ensemble de contes de toute esp猫ce.鈥�

This clearly means that he has been accurate as far as the subject-matter is concerned, but has found it necessary to alter the order of some of the Books. Here he surely must refer to Books VI-XVIII, while the 鈥減ortion de po猫me r茅gulier鈥� which he has been so careful to arrange in proper order can be none other than Books XIV-XV.

When we turn to the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻-艣濒辞办补-蝉补峁僩谤补丑补^[8] we at once find ample support for our theories. The order of the Books is reasonable and clear, and what in the Kashmirian versions was passed over with little more than a mere reference is now detailed in full. In fact, we not only meet with entirely new adventures, but find certain of the characters presented in quite a different light.

For the first time the improbabilities found in the Kashmirian accounts of 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻鈥檚 marriage and the romance of Ka濒颈峁単补蝉en膩 entirely disappear. Their social standing is certainly much lower, but this only adds to the strength of the plot.

痴别驳补惫补迟墨, being of much higher birth, has been accepted by the Kashmirians practically unaltered. Their desire to raise the social standing of the principal characters to the detriment of the tale is manifest. In some cases where they have raised merchants to the rank of princes, or mortals to the degree of Gandharvas, we are able to detect the fraud, for the same names have been retained with suffixes which violate the accepted rules of Sanskrit etymology.

So great appears to be the wish of the Kashmirian compilers to raise the social tone of the work, that tales which cannot escape their low-type settings are altogether omitted, but appear in detail in the Nepalese version.

Without giving other evidence of the accuracy of Budhasv膩min鈥檚 work as detailed by Lac么te, I would mention one point which seems to me of great importance. We have, of course, noticed that throughout the whole of the Ocean the chief deity is 艢颈惫补. Now, in the 艢loka-蝉补峁僩谤补丑补 it is not 艢颈惫补, but Kuvera. The name of the hero alone tells us which is correct. 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 means 鈥済iven by 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补.鈥�

狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补 is one of Kuvera鈥檚, and not 艢颈惫补鈥檚, titles. So, when Udayana was praying for a son, it must have been Kuvera whom he worshipped, otherwise our hero鈥檚 name would have been 艢颈惫补datta or some other name compounded from one of 艢颈惫补鈥檚 many titles.

It is obvious that the Kashmirian compilers have altered the name of the deity in accordance with local contemporary beliefs.

Numerous other examples of the reliability of Budhasv膩min鈥檚 work could be quoted, but full details will be found in Lac么te鈥檚 Essai. With the help, then, of the 艢loka-蝉补峁僩谤补丑补, we are able to get a fairly shrewd idea of what 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补鈥檚 original work must have been like. The first Book corresponded to Book XVI of the K.S.S. It contained the history and abdication of 骋辞辫腻濒补 and 笔腻濒补办补, which led up to the incident of Ityaka and 厂耻谤补迟补尘补帽箩补谤墨. The subsequent trial brought 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补 on the scene, who later was asked to relate his history. After some hesitation (only in the B.K.S.S.) he commenced (K.S.S., Bk. VI, ch. xxvii) by relating his family history (K.S.S., Bks. II, III鈥攚ith possibly another, now lost, giving further details of Udayana鈥檚 amours^[9]).

The story of his own birth (K.S.S., Bk. IV) follows. Ignoring the two 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补 Books (K.S.S., Bks. V and VIII), which, as we have already seen, could go in anywhere, we come to the heroine of the whole story, 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻.

N. sees her as a child and falls in love with her (K.S.S., Bk. VI, ch. xxxiv). Various adventures follow (only in the B.K.S.S.), leading up to the marriage (K.S.S., Bk. VI, ch. xxxiv-end). Then comes the sudden disappearance of 惭补诲补苍补尘补帽肠耻办腻 (K.S.S., Bk. XIV, ch. cv), resulting in numerous adventures, usually terminating in a fresh marriage. The order and number of Books thus formed cannot be determined for certain, but in the K.S.S. they certainly included Books XIV (chaps, cvi, cvii), VII, IX-XIII, XIV (ch. cviii) and XV.

We can also add Books XVII and XVIII, if, as Lac么te thinks is the case, they are not apocryphal.

The plan of the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻 resembles that of the 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 to a certain extent鈥攖he setting out of the hero to recover his lost love, acquiring others on the way, the constant help of a trusty friend, the purity of the captive wife, and the final triumph on her safe recovery.

We must not press the comparison further; but to disregard it would be a mistake, because then we would miss the due appreciation of the genius of 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补. Not that it is evident from the fact that he has copied the plan of the great Epic, but because, having copied it, he proceeds to treat his subject-matter in a way unheard of and absolutely original.

His heroes are not borrowed from the great national epics, the deity is not the omnipotent 艢颈惫补 or 痴颈峁ａ箛耻, and the incidents in the tale are not confined to kings, princes and gods.

In place of this usually accepted precedent we find the heroes are but petty princes who rub shoulders with merchants, artisans, sailors, adventurers and beggars. The heroine is the daughter of a prostitute, but her desire to raise the level of her caste and be worthy of her husband gives great strength to the character that 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 has created. The chief deity is Kuvera, the god of merchants and treasures.

All this must have struck contemporary audiences as most original and novel. But there is another point that we must not miss. The nature of the work would reach a much wider public鈥攖he kind of public, in fact, which would flock together at the annual festivals held at 碍补耻艣腻尘产墨 and 鲍箩箩补测颈苍墨. Perhaps long extracts from the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻 were recited at these events; anyway I notice Lac么te thinks it likely.

We can now more readily understand that the Kashmirian compilers would find much to alter and suppress. The necessity for an Introduction also becomes more apparent.

Thus at the end of our short inquiry we find that the K.S.S., as we have it to-day, is but a poor and badly arranged version of the original work. This Somadeva must have known; and though we see he has done his best to rearrange certain portions of it, he was well aware that any attempt to reconstruct it entirely would mean little less than composing a new work.

There was, I think, another factor which prevented Somadeva from making too drastic alterations鈥攏amely, his wish to retain all that mass of sub-stories added by the Kashmirians. The frame-story had been altered in order to take them in as naturally as possible. Although in many cases they are introduced in the most clumsy fashion, it is clear that considerable alterations would have to be made in 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补鈥檚 text before it was ready to receive so many new stories.

But we must not complain鈥攆ar from it鈥攆or the result has been that in about a.d. 1070 Somadeva has presented us with one of the greatest collections of tales the world has ever seen 鈥攖ales which not only mirrored contemporary customs and beliefs, and exhibited the versatile genius of the story-teller, but tales which were destined to inspire the genius of unborn giants of European literature鈥擝occaccio, Goethe, La Fontaine, Chaucer and Shakespeare.

As to 碍峁�e尘别苍诲谤补, we should have lost little if he had not lived, or at any rate had not produced a version of the 叠峁沨补迟-办补迟丑腻.

But with Somadeva matters are very different. We must hail him as the Father of Fiction, and his work as one of the masterpieces of the world.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

See Vol. VIII, p. 93.

[2]:

Pp. 85, 86 of this volume.

[3]:

In the article on 鈥淧rakrit,鈥� by Sir George Grierson, in the Ency. Brit., vol. xxii, p. 253, he says:

鈥湵崮灞舨�'s work is important, not only on its own account, but also as showing the existence of a large Prakrit literature at the time when it was compiled. Most of this is now lost. There are some scholars (including the present writer) who believe that Sanskrit literature owes more than is generally admitted to works in the vernacular, and that even the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 first took its form as a folk-epic in an early Prakrit, and was subsequently translated into Sanskrit, in which language it was further manipulated, added to, and received its final shape.鈥�

[4]:

See further Wintemitz, Geschichte der Indischen Litteratur, vol. iii, pp. 102, 103.

[5]:

In future I shall thus refer to the hero 狈补谤补惫腻丑补苍补诲补迟迟补.

[6]:

Sir George Grierson, 鈥淢odern Hinduism and its Debt to the Nestorians,鈥� Journ. Roy. As. Soc., 1907, p. 7 et seq.

[7]:

See Vol. VIII, p.93n².

[8]:

Discussed in detail by Lac么te, Essai, pp. 146-198, and edited by him, with a French translation, the same year (1908).

[9]:

It seems probable that 骋耻峁嚹佱笉丑测补 used only a portion of the widely known Udayana cycle of legends current at the time.

Reference should be made to Burli峁単ame鈥檚 Buddhist Legends, Harvard Oriental Series, vol. xxviii, pp. 247-293; Synopsis, pp. 79-84; parallels, pp. 62-63.