Vratas depicted in the Gangajala (study)
by Maitreyee Goswami | 2018 | 55,000 words
This page relates 鈥楧harmashastra: its meaning鈥� of the study dealing with the Vratas (vows) depicted in the Gangajala鈥攁 Smriti-Nibandha, i.e., a text belonging to the Kamarupa School of Dharma-shastra literature which deals with social topics, religious rites and local traditions. The term Vrata refers to ritual vows aimed at spiritual and moral purification. This essay explores its socio-religious implications reflecting medieval Assam.
Go directly to: Footnotes.
Part 1 - Dharma艣腻蝉迟谤补: its meaning
The term 诲丑补谤尘补艣腻蝉迟谤补 is a compound word comprising two component words i.e., dharma and 艣腻蝉迟谤补. They are interrelated to each other. Of these two, the term dharma is having diverse connotations. It is used first as a noun and then as an adjective. Its use is found both in masculine and neuter genders[1] in Vedic and Classical Sanskrit literature. To substantiate this point a few texts both from Vedic and Classical Sanskrit have been shown below with the intended meaning of the word dharma used in them. In the Vedic expression 鈥�t膩ni dharm膩峁噄 pratham膩ny膩san鈥� under 础蝉测补惫腻尘补蝉测补 蝉奴办迟补[2], the word dharma is used in neuter. It is stated here how dharma has first originated from the performance of the 驰补箩帽补蝉 by the Gods which is their natural functions.[3] In another verse of the 峁欢惫别诲补, dharma is used in masculine in the sense of sustainer and upholder of all. Here dharma, is applied as the essence of Pitu i.e., anna (food). Pitu is the life force and drink, herbal drinks meant for his worshippers to consume, to sustain the body and the life.[4] In the Atharvaveda also the word dharma is revealed in masculine. It contains a list of religious duties the source of which is nothing but the Brahma. Brahma is the substratum of all excellent qualities of dharma such as right determination, righteous speech, virtue, detachment from pleasure, duties and responsibilities with sacrifice, gifts and oblation.[5]
The 颁丑腻苍诲辞驳测辞辫补苍颈峁诲 also reveals the term dharma in masculine while explaining the three skandhas of dharma to be observed by a student during his 产谤补丑尘补肠补谤测腻艣谤补尘补.[6] The opening 蝉奴迟谤补 of Gautama-Dharma蝉奴迟谤补 is 鈥�Vedo dharmam奴lam鈥�. Here too this word is expressed in masculine as it is clearly stated by Haradutta in his commentary 惭颈迟腻办峁谤腻惫峁泃迟颈 that, dharma possesses invisible characteristics in its results in terms of prosperity through activities.[7] The 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈 (惭补苍耻蝉补峁僪颈迟腻) exclusively deals with dharma where the word dharma is used in masculine.[8] Kull奴ka in his 惭耻办迟腻惫补濒墨 has explained it in the same gender.[9] Dharma in masculine has glorified 驳腻谤丑补峁ａ弓丑测腻艣谤补尘补 in 叠丑补惫颈峁补辫耻谤腻峁嘺.[10] From the above discussion it is clear that, the Vedic literature uses the term both in neuter and masculine gender, whereas the Post-Vedic and Classical Sanskrit literature use it in masculine gender.
1 Etymology of the term Dharma
The word dharma is derived from the root 诲丑峁� with the addition of the suffix man to it. The root 诲丑峁� means to hold, to preserve, to bind together, to maintain etc. The etymological definition of dharma is first seen stated in the 艢腻苍迟颈辫补谤惫补 of the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补.[11]
It further adds two characteristics to dharma in its scope. They 补谤别鈥�
- prosperity i.e., prabhava and
- non-violence i.e., 补丑颈峁僺腻.
2 Scope of Dharma
Dharma in its greater sense includes goodness, righteousness, justice, merit, doctrine of duties and rights, religious and moral duties, and spiritual matters,[12] besides cleanliness, sanitation, and behavior, polite ways of conduct, duties of four 腻艣谤补尘补蝉, and duties of the king etc., all pertaining to an ideal society. Dharma is a quality of mind or soul which is not perceived, but it is the sole friend of creation and prosperity in both the worlds. It is an invisible substance and therefore 补尘奴谤迟补 and 补辫奴谤惫补. But its existence can be inferred from the effect it produces.[13] According to 狈补颈测腻测颈办补蝉, dharma is an innate property of the self.[14]
碍补峁嚹乨补 while explaining the import of dharma gave stress on two conditions viz., prosperity and highest happiness.[15] The first of them is for the attainment of the mundane welfare including heavenly enjoyment and the second the realization of the Supreme Being and immortality of the life.[16] Dharma is always a faith coupled with rational justification. It adheres to its allegiance to the authority of the Vedic revelation but without dogmatism in its execution.
3 Etymology of the term 艣腻蝉迟谤补 and its scope
艢腻蝉迟谤补 (from the root 艣腻蝉, to govern) indicates code of law, code of conduct etc., concerning all aspects of the entire life of an individual and the society as a whole. Through the proper knowledge and guidance of these codes a 诲丑补谤尘补艣腻蝉迟谤补 (Dharma艣腻蝉迟谤补) could advise religious procedure and the 诲丑补谤尘腻诲丑测补办峁 (judge) becomes able to pronounce verdict to settle any dispute. In India during the Post-Vedic period, a good number of such 艣腻蝉tric works unique in the style of metrics codes, were composed to suit the human values i.e., 辫耻谤耻峁Ｄ乺迟丑补肠补迟耻峁ａ弓补测补岣� of an Aryan society.
4 The Elements of Dharma艣腻蝉迟谤补
The two elements that constitute the term 诲丑补谤尘补艣腻蝉迟谤补 are viz., the dharma蝉奴迟谤补 and the 蝉尘峁泃颈. The term 诲丑补谤尘补艣腻蝉迟谤补 as observed by V.A. Ramaswami Sastri in the Cultural Heritage of India-鈥榠s generally applied to both the Dharma蝉奴迟谤补 and metrical codes, otherwise known as 蝉尘峁泃颈 蝉鈥�.[17] The Dharma蝉奴迟谤补s are generally assigned to the period prior to that of the Dharma艣腻蝉迟谤补, popularly known as 蝉尘峁泃颈s. It is one of the three sections of the Kalpa蝉奴迟谤补 under 痴别诲腻峁単补蝉. The 艢谤补耻迟补蝉奴迟谤补, the first among them deals with sacrifices based on the 艣谤补耻迟补 or as detailed in the Vedas. The second i.e., the 厂尘腻谤迟补-蝉奴迟谤补 as designated by V.M. Apte is divided into two classes viz., the 骋峁沨测补蝉奴迟谤补 and the Dharma蝉奴迟谤补.[18] The 骋峁沨测补蝉奴迟谤补 deals with the numerous sacraments applicable to the domestic life of a man and his family. The Dharma蝉奴迟谤补s are directly connected with the 驳峁沨测补蝉奴迟谤补s that deal with dharma. The Dharma蝉奴迟谤补s contain manifold subjects of which the subjects may be stated as follows: the duties of four castes, four stages of life, the ritual ceremony of investiture with the sacred thread, marriage, the duties and responsibilities of a king, the rules of taxation, inheritance, money lending, debts, witness, the law of punishment, ownership of property, impurities of different kinds, rules about food and drink, duties of women, various funeral rites and rules of expiation etc.
In respect of the treatment of the topics cited above and other it may be said that many of the Dharma蝉奴迟谤补s are considered to be the supplementary texts to the 艢谤补耻迟补蝉奴迟谤补s and 骋峁沨测补蝉奴迟谤补s that come through the different 艣腻办丑腻蝉 of different Vedas.[19]
Though the Dharma蝉奴迟谤补 is a section of the Kalpa蝉奴迟谤补, it should be kept in mind that contrary to that notion, a few Dharma蝉奴迟谤补s i.e., the Gautama dharma蝉奴迟谤补 is an independent work of this class. It is believed to be the earliest work of Dh.s奴 written during 600-400 BC. This work is studied by the Chandogas as it belongs to the 搁腻峁嚹乱补苍墨测补艣腻办丑腻 of the 厂腻尘补惫别诲补.[20]
Besides Gautama an illustrious writer on Dharma蝉奴迟谤补, there are also other dharma蝉奴迟谤补k膩ras who contributed greatly towards Indian law codes. Among them a group of prominent writers came up and among those the following are noteworthy as such, 叠补耻诲丑腻测补苍补, 膧辫补蝉迟补尘产补, 贬颈谤补峁噛补办别艣墨, Vasi峁ａ弓岣, 痴颈峁ａ箛耻, 贬腻谤颈迟补 and 艢a峁僰haLikhita. The others were: At峁�, 鲍艣补苍腻, 碍补峁噕补, 碍腻艣测补辫补, 骋腻谤驳测补, J膩tukar峁噛a, Devala, Paithin膩艣墨, 叠峁沨补蝉辫补迟颈, 叠丑补谤补诲惫腻箩补, 艢腻迟腻迟补辫补 and Sumantu may be referred to.[21]
5 The 厂尘峁泃颈 s
The term 蝉尘峁泃颈 ordinarily denotes acts of remembrance or inward recollection. In the sense of the law-books of the Hindus, it means the reminiscences of the Vedic teaching recollected by the 蝉尘峁泃颈k膩ras who have studied the Vedas and learnt their implied meaning completely. Reflecting on the extant 蝉尘峁泃颈 works, Sir Monier William holds that 鈥榯he whole body of sacred tradition or what is remembered by the human teachers, in its widest acceptation this use of the term 蝉尘峁泃颈, includes the 6 痴别诲腻峁単补蝉, the 蝉奴迟谤补s both 艣谤补耻迟补 and 驳峁沨测补, the law books of Manu & etc. the 滨迟颈丑腻蝉补, the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉 and the N墨ti-艣腻蝉迟谤补 蝉鈥�.[22] Although Dharma蝉奴迟谤补 is generally included in the domain of Dharma艣腻蝉迟谤补, still 厂尘峁泃颈 is widely akin to the Dharma艣腻蝉迟谤补. This concept is justified by one statement of Manu that says: Veda is nothing but the 艢谤耻迟颈 and so also, 厂尘峁泃颈 is the Dharma艣腻蝉迟谤补[23] The 厂尘峁泃颈 in its wider sense is applied to all ancient orthodox Non-Vedic works such as Panini鈥檚 础峁ａ弓腻诲丑测腻测墨, the 艢谤补耻迟补, 骋峁沨测补 and other Dharma蝉奴迟谤补s, the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补, 惭补苍耻蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, and others. In a narrower sense 厂尘峁泃颈 and Dharma艣腻蝉迟谤补 are synonyms.[24]
The 厂尘峁泃蝉 consider the Vedas to be the primary source of all laws. But the laws that were newly introduced in the succeeding Dharma艣腻蝉迟谤补 are not expected to exist there in the extant texts of the Vedas. The Vedas have to be learnt first directly through the Vedic text or sometimes indirectly through the 厂尘峁泃颈 texts. Manu together with other 蝉尘峁泃颈k膩ras and a host of 苍颈产补苍诲丑补办腻谤补蝉 of later period precisely adopted some new codes of conduct not familiar to the Vedas in their works, however kept them in conformity with the Veads.[25]
The 厂尘峁泃颈s in its wider sense accepts Dharma蝉奴迟谤补 in its scope. They are authored by human beings. They accept Veda as their source. In spite of that the Dharma蝉奴迟谤补s do not betray any penchant towards any Vedic Schools. Further the Dharma艣腻蝉迟谤补 with proper and systematic way elaborates almost the same topics as done by the Dharma蝉奴迟谤补s in three aspects, viz., 膧肠腻谤补, 痴测补惫补丑腻谤补 and 笔谤腻测补艣肠颈迟迟补.
In the History of Dharma艣腻蝉迟谤补, we find inclusion of fourteen kinds of 鈥�惫颈诲测腻蝉迟丑腻苍补鈥� enumerated for the first time in the Y膩j帽avalkya蝉尘峁泃颈.[26]
These 补谤别鈥�
On the other hand, the 痴颈峁ａ箛耻辫耻谤腻峁嘺 added a list of it adding another four to the above 痴颈诲测腻蝉. These four 痴颈诲测腻蝉 补谤别鈥�
- 膧测耻谤惫别诲补,
- Dhanurveda,
- 骋腻苍诲丑补谤惫补惫别诲补 and
- Atharvaveda.[27]
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
[2]:
yaj帽ena yaj帽amayajanta dev膩st膩ni dharm膩峁噄 pratham膩ny膩san/
te ha 苍腻办补峁� 尘补丑颈尘腻苍补岣� sacanta yatra p奴rve s膩dh膩y膩岣� santi dev 腻岣�// 峁欢惫别诲补,i.164.50
[4]:
pitu峁� nu sto峁峁� maho dharm膩峁嘺峁� tavi峁Ｄ玬/
yasya trito vyojas膩 v峁泃tra峁� viparvamardayat// 峁欢惫别诲补, i.187.1
[5]:
[6]:
[7]:
karmajanyo'bhyudayani岣ヅ況eyasaheturap奴rv膩khya 膩tmagu峁噊 诲丑补谤尘补岣�//
Haradutta on Gautama dharma蝉奴迟谤补,i.1.1
[8]:
惫颈诲惫补诲产丑颈岣� 蝉别惫颈迟补岣� 蝉补诲产丑颈谤苍颈迟测补尘补诲惫别峁谤腻驳颈产丑颈岣�/
h峁沝ayen膩bhyanugato yodharmastanivodhnata// 惭补苍耻蝉补峁僪颈迟腻,ii.1
[10]:
[11]:
[12]:
Sundararajan, K.R. & Mukharji, Bithika, Hindu Spirituality, p.564
[13]:
jayati jagadekabandhurlokadvita yasya sa峁僷ado 丑别迟耻岣�/
parahitam奴rtira岣嶀箾峁ａ弓a phal膩numeyasthiti 诲丑补谤尘补岣�// Inscriptions of Ancient Assam., p.41
[14]:
sukhadu岣hayoras膩dh膩ra峁嘺k膩ra峁噀 dharm膩dharmau/
tau c膩 pratyak峁Ｄ乿apy膩gamagamyau/
anum膩峁嘺gamyau ca// 罢补谤办补产丑腻峁Ｄ�., p.210
[15]:
测补迟辞'产丑测耻诲补测补苍颈岣ヅ况别测补蝉补岣� 蝉颈诲诲丑颈岣� sa 诲丑补谤尘补岣�/ Vai艣e峁ka蝉奴迟谤补, i.2
[17]:
(ed.) De S.K., Ghosal, U.N., Pusalkar, A.D. & Hazara, R.C., Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. II, p. 308
[18]:
Ibid ., Vol.I , p.243
[19]:
Ibid ., Vol. I, p. 302
[20]:
Pandey, U.C., Gautama dharma蝉奴迟谤补, p.13
[21]:
Ibid., pp.8 -9
[22]:
William, Sir Monier, Monier, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p.1272
[24]:
Kane, P.V., HDS., Vol. I, p. 131
[25]:
vedo'khilo dharmam奴la峁� 蝉尘峁泃颈艣ile ca tadvid膩m/
膩c膩ra艣caiva s膩dhun膩m膩tmanatu峁ａ弓ireva ca// 惭补苍耻蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, ii.6
[26]:
辫耻谤腻峁嘺-ny膩ya-m墨m膩峁僺膩 dharma艣腻蝉tr膩峁単ami艣rit膩岣�/
惫别诲腻岣� sth膩n膩ni vidy膩n膩峁� dharmasya ca 肠补迟耻谤诲补艣补岣�/ Y膩j帽avalkya蝉尘峁泃颈, i.3