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At the outset, it may be said that the Puranic account of Visnu in the form of the tortoise or the god's appearance in the form of Kurma to be the pivot of the Mandara mountain, at the time of churning the milk ocean by the gods and demons, has been considered as a Vaisnavite adoption of mythical function found in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and the puranas too. The aiding and supporting function of the tortoise coincided with conceptions entertained by Vaisnava devotees are of the purpose and significance of the gods incarnations to identify the animal of folklore with their particular god in the phenomenal form of a helpful living being. In ancient Vedic mythology, the tortoise is said to belonged to Varuna. It did the duty of Varuna himself lying as husband besides a representative of the earth.61 61. Satapatha Brahmana, VII.5.1.6, VI.5.3.1

175 Visnu is also earth's husband. The Kurma is also able to exert fertilizing influences. In accordance with the nature of the animal Kasyapa, 'the tortoise' enters the earth. It is considered as the father of all creatures, and Prajapati in craeting assumed the form of this reptile. The tortoise with its nature of drawing within itself all its limbs stands in later times, as a representative of the man who wishes to repress all his emotions and to restrain the activities of his senses. Kurma in Vedic Literature : In the Vedas, the tortoise has acquired semi-divine position. In the Sukla Yajurveda it is spoken of as 'Lord of waters', and in the Atharva Veda it is called 'Kasyapa' identifying with Prajapati. Also it receives the epithet of 'Svayambhu', 'self existent'. In the Satapatha Brahmana Prajapati is said to have changed himself into tortoise when reproducing all creatures. This transformation came to know in Hindy mythology as the tortoise incarnation of Visnu. Specifically the Kurma designated as 'Kasyapa' appears in the Vedic texts quite often. It is glorified with much adoration "as the regulator of Sun," thus here he is connected with Sun.62 62. yat te candram kasyapa rocanavada yat samhitam puskalam citrabhanu | yasminsurya arpitah sapta sakam tasya devasya | kruddhasyai tadago ya evam vidvamsam brahmanam jinati | uda vepaya rohita praksinihi brahmajyasya pratimunca pasan || Atharva Veda XIII.3.10.

176 The Atharva Veda further states that the term 'Kasyapa' connotes the Sun. 63 The Sayana's commentary on the Atharva Veda also corroborates the same idea. 64 Quoting from the Taittiriya Aranyaka He considers Kasyapa to be one of the eighth Sun. 65 The connection between the Kurma and the Mandara mountain which he beheld on his back at the time of churning the milk ocean, suggested in the Vedic passage. It is possible that the disc like shall of the tortoise, its slow movement and the act of withdrawing within its shell, may have inspired the seers to compare it or to identify with the Sun. Elsewhere in the Caturbhani slow setting of the Sun is compared to the movement of the tortoise.66 Etymology of the word 'Kurma' : The word Kurma literally means 'a tortoise' referring to Prajapati's form. Prajapati is called Kurma in as much as he having assumed that form, created all beings. According to second etymology the vital airs also called Kurma because these are the vital airs that retain all the creatures. The 63. parivrto brahmana varganaham kasyapasya jyotisa varcasa ca | ma ma prapannipado daivya ya sa manusiravasrsta vadhaya | Ibid., XVII.1.28. 64. kalah praja asrjata kalo agre prajapatim | svayambhuh kasyapah kalata tapah kaladajayat || Ibid., XIX. 53.10 65. kasyapah aroga bhrajadi saptasuyapiksaya astamah suryah | Taittiriya Aranyaka : 1.7.1 66. haimah kurmah ivavasidati sanaih samksipta pado ravih | Dhurtavita Samvada 70. p.119 Q: Kalpane Desai, Iconography of Visnu, Abhinava publications, New Delhi, 1973. p.70.

177 seeds of Puranic Kurmavatara are found in the Satapatha Brahmana. In the Vacaspatyam and the Sabdakalpadruma, this word stands, no doubt for an acquatic creature and the etymologies of the word are very fantastic for the word which is interpreted as a condensed from 'kutsita ' and 'urmih, ku, from kutsita * and sma from urmih .' 67 These interpretations come under the first catagory of semantic etymologies of simple words for, i] The meaning a 'tortoise' or an epithet of Prajapati or vital airs is not derived from the root mentioned. But the word can be compared with Greek "Klemmus", a 'tortoise'. The Yaska also explains the word 'synonym of 'Kurma'. A tortoise is traced to + 鈭歝 which means either one who hides his mouth into his body or one who protects his other limbs by means of his peculiar mouth, or 'one who drinks with his peculiar mouth. The tortoise organ called 'is situated on its back. The flexibility of all organs depends upon it; it is by means of this organ that the tortoise can contact all its organs, and it is with this, that it drinks water. 68 And also mentioned in the Nirukta Indra reveals a tortoise or Kupara of boundless dimensions. The term akupara as explained 67. kutsitah kau va urmi vege yasya mrso | kacchape kutsitah isat va urmi vego yasya | ke jale urmiyasyeti va pusodarat sadhuh | jalavantuvisesah || Vacaspatyam, (Q) The etymology in the Satapatha Brahmana, Dr. Nargis Varma, Nag. Publishers, New Delhi, 1991. 68. pah kacchvam pati kacchena patiti va kacchena pibatiti va | Nirukta IV.18, (Q) Siddeswar Varma, The etymology of Yaska, Visveswarananda Institute Publishers, 1953, p. 129.

178 here, stands for the waters or the ocean, for the Sun and for the tortoise. It is also said here that the Kaccha or Khaccha mean one who covers the sky, thus identifying it with the Sun. It is, therefore, clear that the tortoise symbolizes the Sun and thewaters and is also considered to be the Lord of Creation. It is in this connection with the Sun and the waters, that the identification of Visnu with Kurma in the puranas hold significance. The Satapatha Brahmana gives the following account of the creation of tortoise as a wish of Prajapati. It also discusses the symbolic importance of the tortoise. It is identified with the life sap of this wold, the whole Universe and the Sun. It compares Purodasa with the tortoise, and then explains its significance. "He (Prajapati) put down a living tortoise; the tortoise means the life sap. It is life sap he thus bestows on Agni. This life sap is that tortoise of these worlds which flowed away from them when plunged into the waters; that life sap he now bestows on Agni; As far as the life sap extends so far the body extends; that tortoise thus is these worlds.69 The following parable explains why the tortoise is the life sap of the world. "Prajapati desired to create the earth. So he compressed the primeval egg. The juice which flowed from, it becomes a 'tortoise'. 70 69. kurmamupadadhati | raso vai kurmo rasamevaitadupadhati yo vai sa esam lokanamapsu praviddhanam parangaso'tyaksara Asut seusna atch: || Satapatha Brahmana: VII.5.1.1. 70. so'kamayata | abhyo'dabhyo'dhimam prajanayeyamiti tam samklisyapsu pravidhyattasmai yah paran raso'tyaksaratsa kurmo'bhavadatha yadurdhvamudauksyatedam tadyadidamurdhvamadabhyo'dhi jayate seya sarvapa evanuvyaittadidamekameva rupa AHGMANY YA || Satapatha Brahmana : VII.5.1.2.

179 Kasyapa who is personified as the life sap of the world, naturally is said to be the Lord of creation. He created the living beings; so it is called 'Kurma'. 71 It is said, "Prajapati having assumed the form of Kurma created living beings. What he created, he made; as he made he is called 'kurma', and kurma being the same as Kasyapa, all the creatures are said to have descended from Kasyapa. This kurma is same as the Sun.72 This particular aspect of the tortoise amply justifies the important role played in the myth of the churning ocean symbolising the myth of creation. 73 The shape and frame of the tortoise has also something to do with its identification with the universe, which He is the creator of the Satapatha Brahmana: "The lower shell of the tortoise is terrestrial world; as it were fixed, for fixed as it were is this world. And that upper shell is the yonder of sky; it has its ends, as it were bent down. That which is 71. sa yatkurmo nama | etadvai rupam krtva prajapatih praja'srajata yadasrjatakarottadyadakarottasmatkurmah kasyapo vai kurmastasmadahuh sarvah prajah kasyapya'iti | Ibid., VII. 5.5. 72. sa yah sa kurmo'sau sa adityah | amumevaitadaditya mupadadhati tam purastatpratyancamupadadhatyamum tadaditya purastatpratyanca dadhati tasmadasavadityah purastatpratyan dhiyate daksinato'sadhayai vrsa vai kurmo yosa'sadha daksinato vai vrsa yosamupasete'ratnimatre'ratnimatraddhi vrsa yosamupasete saisa sarvasamistakanam mahisi yadasadvaitasyai daksinatah santsarvasamistakanam daksinato bhavati || Ibid., VII. 5.6. 73. J.N. Gonda, Aspects of Early Visnuism.

180 between the shell is the air; that tortoise thus in these worlds. It is these worlds he lays down (to form part of the altar)." While piloing up of the fire oltar in the sacrifice, the Kurma is built into it where it is left as the lord of the waters.75 Assuming the form of tortoise, he created offsprings. From this it is clean that god is the Supreme, preserver, sustainer and cultivater of all.76 In the Jaiminiya Brahmana there is a reference to this cosmic tortoise.77 In the Vajasaneyi Samhita, the Kasyapa is also called the Lord of the waters. 78 The Satapatha Brahmana gives the idea of the Kurma incarnation in an embryonic form, where it is told that Prajapati, desirous of creating the earth, compressed already the existing egg and threw it into the water. The juice which flowed out of it became a tortoise; and that which was spirituated upwards, dissolved itself all over the 74. tasya yadadharam kapalama | atha sa lokastatpratisthitamiva bhavati pratisthitata'iva hyayam lokobhya yaduttaram sa dyaustadavyavagrhitantamiva bhavati vvavagrahitanteva hi dyauratha yadantara tadantariksa saesaima eva loka'imanevaitallokanupadadhati || Satapatha Bralmana VIII. 5.2. 75. Ibid., VII. 5.1. - 76. yadveva kurmamupadadhati | prano kurmah prano himah sarva | prajah karoti pranamevaitadupadadhati tam purastatpratyancamupadadhati purastattatpratyanca pranam dadhati tasmat purasta pratyan prano dhiyate purusamabhyavrttam yajamane tatpranam dadhati daksinato'sadhayai prano vai kurmo vagasadhaprano vai vaca vrpa prano mithunama || Ibid., VII. 5.7. 77. Jaiminiya Brahmana III. 203.27. 78. Vajasaneyi Samhita, 13.31

181 water. Then, out of it, sprang the earth. Here it is suggested that the tortoise is at the bottom of the earth as its support. In another place, it is conveyed that Agni Vaisvanara (Aditya) creeps over the three worlds in the form of a tortoise; while in another context a living tortoise is said to have beeen placed in the first layer of the 'Angicayana'. Thus it can easily be seen that the tortoise is the very root of all the worlds of which the layers are supposed to represent. It is further stated that Prajapati in the form of a tortoise created living beings. And since a tortoise is Kasyapa, therefore all creatures are said to have descended from Kasyapa. Here we have the root of the story of the Kurma incarnation. The reference to Kurma incarnation is found in its full fledged form in the two epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata. According to the Ramayana the sons of Kasyapa begotten by Diti and Aditi, i.e. the Devas and the Danavas, decided to churn the ocean, the abode of Varuna, to attain eternal life through Amrta and also to obtain the riches of the nether world. They used the Mandara mountain as the churning staff and the serpent Vasuki as the churning rope. Then follows the list of various objects that came out from the ocean. At the end Devas and Asuras quarrelled themselves for the Amrta. Ultimately the sons of Diti were defeated.79 In the Mahabharata, the story assumes in little different shape. The gods and demons wanted to churn the ocean in order to obtain Amrta. They wanted mountain Mandara as support for the churning 79. Ramayana I.41.

182 the staff. The gods approached the tortoise king (Kurma-Raja) to lend his back or shell as a support to Mandara. Here the kurma is not connected with Visnu or any other god. Hence, it may be summarised that the churning of the ocean and the tortoise, who in its deified form is symbolically connected with the creation myth and assimilated in one legend.80 Kurma in Puranic Literature : Here it is worthy to take a note of the episode of Durvasa read in the Visnu Purana ( I. 9 ) as it forms the cause for Kurma incarnation. One day, sage Durvasa, emanation of Sankara, was wandering on this earth. There, the sage saw a Vidyadhari holding a celestial garland of Santanaka flowers in her hand. The rangers of the entire forest were attracted by the perfume of that celestial garland. Seeing that garland sage asked him the same. Solicited by him, that Vidyadhari gave that graceful garland to him.81 Adorning the garland 80. ta ucuh kurmarajanamakuparo surasurah | adhisthanam girestasya bhavan bhavitumarhasi || kurmena tu yathotyukta prstamasya samarpitam | tam sailam tasya prstastham yantrenendro nyapidayat || Mahabharata I. 18 - 11.12 81. durvasah sankarasyamsascacara prthivimimam | sa dadarsa srjam divyamrsirvidyadharikare || santanakanamakhilam yasya gandhena vasitam | atisevyamabhuhrahyan taddhanam vanacarinam || unmattavratadhrgviprastam drstva sobhanam srajam | tam yayace vararoham vidyadhara vadhum tatah || yacita tena tanvangi malam vidyadharangana | dadau tasmai visalaksi sadaram pranipatya tam || Visnu Purana, Geeta Press, Gorakhpur. I. 9.2-5.

183 on his head, the sage wearing the form of a maniac roamed about the earth on the way he saw Indra mounting on the Airavata together with the celestials. And the ascetic, resembling a mad man taking garland out of his head, threw on the sovereign of the celestials. Then Indra taking the garland placed it on the head of Airavata. The Airavata too, overpowered by its perfume caste the garland away to the earth.82 Seeing this, sage Durvasa became angry and cursed Indra that his prospirity of the three worlds would perish.83 So, due to the curse of sage Durvasa Indra lost his lordship of three worlds, strength and valour. 84 On the consequent of this, the demons attacked the gods yet the latter could not face them as they were destitake of power.85 Then Indra together with his celestial gods and Brahma approached Visnu 86 to get the same back. Then Lord Visnu said "In 82. sa dadarsa tamayantamunmattairavate sthitam | trailokyadhipatim devam saha devaih sacipatim || tamatmanah sa sirasah srjamunmattasatpadam | adayamararajaya cikseponmattavanmunih || grhitva'mararajena sragairavatamurddhani | nyasta raraja kailasasikhare jahnavi yatha || madandhakaritakso'sau gandhakrstena varanah | I karenaghraya cidopa tam srajam dharanitale || Ibid., 7-10. 83. tatascukrodha bhagavanadurvasa munisattamah | Ibid., 11. 84. maya dattamimam malam yasmanna bahu manyase | | trailokya srirato mudha vinasamupayasyati || 85. evamatyantanih sri trailokye satvavarjite | devan prati balohyomam cakrurdaiteyadanavah || . 86. tejaso bhavatam devah karisyamyapabrmhanam | vadamyaham yatkriyatam bhavadbhistadidam surah || 鈫�

184 the company of demons put all the medical plants in the milk ocean and making Mandara the churning stick, Vasuki the cord, churn the ocean for ambrosia. Then nectar will come up. Drinking that nectar you gain strength and valour." Thus addressed by Lord Hari, gods and demons started churning the ocean. So, Lord Hari remaining in the midst of milk ocean, took the form of a Kurma to support the churning stick, i.e. Mandara. Thus Durvasa's curse to the gods became the cause for Lord Visnu's incarnation as Kurma. Further, the Visnu Purana describes the manifestation of Lord Visnu as Kurma in detail. In days of yore the fight ensued between the gods and demons. The god were defeated and all of them took refuge in Visnu. All the god euloguised and Lord Visnu asking for restoration of their prosperity.87 Euloguised by the gods, and Lord Hari appeared before then and said: 鈫� aniya sahita daityaih ksirabdhau sakalausadhih | praksipyatramrtartham tah sakala daityadanavah || Ibid., 76. manthanam mandaram krtva netram krtva ca vasukim | Ibid., 77. | manthatamamrtam devah sahaye mayyavasthite | Ibid., 78. 87. a) b) evamuktva suransarvan brahma lokapitamahah | ksirodasyottaram tiram taireva sahito yayau || sa gatva tridasaih sarveh samavetah pitamahah | tustava vagmiristabhih paravarapatim harim || Visnu Purana, 38-39, p. 38 pura devasure yuddhe deva daityaih parajitah | sarve te saranam jagmuh ksirabdhitanayapatim || stotrena tustuvuh sarve samaradhyah jagatpatim | krtanjaliputa rajan brahmadya devataganah || | Narasimha Purana, XXXVIII. 1.2.

185 "you all go their and make a peace with the demons, put all the medicinal herbs in the milk ocean, with mountain Mandara on the churning rod and serpent Vasuki as the rope, taking all the demons with you, churn the ocean, I would be there to help you, out of the churning, would came out 'amrta', the exiler of life by drinking which within no time the gods would be fortified with strength and valour. By the advice of the Lord of the Universe, in full co-operation with demons they exerted all their strength in churning the ocean. 88 With mountain Mandara as the churning rod and the serpent Vasuki as the rope they started churning out the 'amrta' from the ocean. In fact of churning in the region facing the mouth of Vasuki, Visnu engaged the demons and in the region facing its tail gods were engaged. In course of churning, mountain Mandara, without any support started sinking down in the ocean. At this, for the good of the universe, Lord Hari assumed the form of a Kurma and supported the Mandara. Placing Himself under it,89 when the ocean was churned there came out, most deadly poison known as 'kalakuta'. All the 88. manthanam mandaram krtva netram krtvatha vasukim | tato mathitumarabdham nrpate tarasamrtam || sarvalokahitarthaya kurmarupamadharayat | atmanam sampravesyatha mandarasya gireradhah | Ibid., 17.20. 89. ksirodamadhye bhagavankurmarupi svayam harih | manthanadreradhisthanam bhramato'bhunmahamune || rupenanyena devanam madhye cakragadadharah | cakarsa nagarajanam daityamadhye'parena || uparyakrantavancachailam brhadrupena kesavah | tathaparena maitreya yanna drstam surasuraih || Visnu Purana 88-90.

186 Nagas part took of it; and whatever was left out, was taken by Samkara at the command of Narayana. In the second round of churning, came out Airavata. In the third there appeared most beautiful nymph 'Urvasi', and in fourth round, came out Parijata, the great tree of Svarga. Then in fifth there was moon and finally Gandharvas and different kinds of divine jewels and ornaments. All the gods and demons were extremely delighted to look at these wonderful object produced from the ocean. At the command of the Lord the clouds began to drizzle, on the side of the gods and also sweet pleasant breeze began to blow in the direction of gods; But many demons affected by the poisonous breath of serpent Vasuki lost their life.90 From that ocean, arose Sri, then came out Dhanvantari with a pitcher full of 'amrta'. The demons were trying to take that amrta. Then Visnu appeared in the form of a woman endowed with all the auspicious features and approached the demons and recovered the amrta from them. The gods drank that 'amrta' and got strength and valour; they then defeated the demons and regained their kingdom.91 90. abhavanjataharsasti tatra sarve surasurah | devapakse tato medhah svalpam varsanti samsthitah || krsnajnaya ca vayusca sukham vati sura na prati | visanihsvasabatena vasukescapare hatah | Narasimha Purana, 30-31. 91. pitemrte ca balibhirdevairdetyacamustada | vadhyamana disobheje patalam ca vivesave || tato deva muda yuktah sankhacakragadabhrtam | pranipatya yathapurvamasasattatrivistapam || Visnu Purana 111 112. |

187 Kurma in the History of World Culture : The tortoise occupies a more exalted position in the folk lore of many races of Asia and America. Its worship obtains certain primifire Indian tribes, and in western Bengal disguised tortoise worship in the image of Dharma Thakur, is even now a living cult amongst certain low caste people. The available myths and legends, about the tortoise deity are tabulated below and compared with the symbolisms associated with Dharma Thakur image. a) Both in Asia and America, the turtle is one of the mythical animals on which the world rests. In the Iroquois myths the world was at first covered with water and then Antaenstsic fell from heaven, the animals held a conference to decide how she was to be received and the turtle caught her on his broad back, with the aid of mud or sand brought up by water fowl the earth was formed. b) In China the tortoise was used for the purpose of divination. The arched shell represent heaven the flat nether plate, the earth and the flesh mankind.92 In China, the tortoise has divine attributes. Tortoise shell is a symbol of unchangeability and symbol of rank used for court girdles During the reign of the chinese emperor Yao, a tortoise rose from 92. Martindale, The Religious of Mankind, Benn's Sixpenny Library, 1931, p.22.

188 the water and rested on the ultar; on its back was an inscribed order instructing Yao to reign in favour of Shan. The conception of the tortoise with the flood, the Sun and the Moon : The tortoise plays a conspicious part in North American myths. In same versions the tortoise and the moon goddess are one and the same; in others, the louder of thunder are due to the tortoise. The tortoise is also the cause of floods. The mother of two gods Sun and Moon is represented as falling from heaven into the primeval waters and being received on the back of the tortoise." A gigantic mythical tortoise is supposed in the Far East to live in the depths of the ocean. It has one eye situated in the middle of the body. Once in every three thousand years, it rises to the surface and turns over on its back. So that it may see the Sun. 93