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The Buddhists declare that the ultimate freedom is the cessation of all kinds of knowledge along with impressions, tendencies, and longings.^[1] This complete cessation is 苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺 (Pala - nibb膩na).^[2] According to the 厂腻峁僰丑测补蝉, lack of discriminative knowledge is the cause of all sufferings. The discriminative knowledge, in the final stage, delivers one from all kinds of pain.^[3] For them liberation is the disassociation of the self (辫耻谤耻峁�a) from the psychical states with which it finds itself in association.^[4] It is a state of aloofness (kaivalya). The Yoga school is also of the same view. They say that avidya is the cause of all sufferings^[5] and the discriminative knowledge is the means to attain freedom.^[6] They also suggest the yoga path which consists of eight stages.^[7]

In the 狈测腻测补-痴补颈艣别峁�i办补 system the final end of transmigratory existence is called 苍颈艣谤别测补蝉补 or apavarga. 碍补峁嚹乨补 says dharma is what accomplishes worldly happiness (abhyudaya) and liberation (苍颈艣谤别测补蝉补).^[8] He also considers that negative actions (苍颈惫峁泃迟颈) lead to liberation. The elimination of desires, merits, and demerits, and the absolute negation of pain are the ends of 苍颈惫峁泃迟颈 and this can be made possible by the true knowledge of the six categories (reality).^[9] According to Sr墨dharac膩rya, liberation is the total annihilation of all the nine qualities of the self namely, consciousness, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, volition, merit, demerit, and impression. Thus, liberation is the existence of the self in its essential nature marked by the destruction of all its qualities.^[10] In 狈测腻测补-蝉奴迟谤补 freedom is defined as the absolute deliverance from suffering (诲耻岣�k丑补).^[11] It can be attained through the elimination of pain, birth, activity, faults (诲辞峁�a), and false knowledge in the reverse order^[12] by the acquisition of the true knowledge. 痴腻迟蝉测腻测补苍补 has conceived the concept of apavarga in terms of the Brahman and the bliss and it consists in the absence of pain.^[13] In conformity with the 痴补颈艣别峁�i办补蝉, 闯补测补苍迟补产丑补峁�峁�补 says that liberation is the complete extinction of the nine specific qualities of the self.^[14] Udayana defines it as a state of aloofness (kaivalya) to be attained through discursive knowledge and devotional attitude. The bondage and the resulting suffering are due to false knowledge. Rebirth and sorrow disappear when the urges to act dies down.^[15] Thus, one attains ultimate freedom. However, in spite of the slight differences, the 狈测腻测补- 痴补颈艣别峁�i办补 thinkers unanimously hold that liberation is neither pure knowledge nor pure bliss; it is purely a painless state and the way to liberation is the elimination of negative states.

In 笔奴谤惫补尘墨尘腻峁僺补 鈥�Jaimini and 艢补惫补谤补 enjoin the performance of duties as a means to attain happiness in heaven. They do not attach much importance to the conception of liberation鈥�.^[16] Jaimini says that happiness is the only goal of life.^[17] 碍耻尘腻谤颈濒补 conceives liberation as a negative character, and hence eternal. It is the negation of all experiences of cognition, pleasure pain, desire aversion, impression, merit, and demerit.^[18] Liberation is because of the absolute irradiation of merits and demerits. According to the 笔谤补产丑腻办补谤补蝉, freedom is the state of the self remaining in its own nature consequent to the destruction of the specific qualities of the self.^[19] Thus liberation, in 笔奴谤惫补尘墨尘腻峁僺补, is a state of complete extermination of pain^[20] . The peculiarity of freedom in the 笔奴谤惫补尘墨尘腻峁僺补 discipline is that it emphasizes karma rather than 箩帽腻苍补.

Advaita Ved膩nta recognizes that the individual self (箩墨惫补) is none other than the Brahman, but identical in nature (j墨vo bra岣�maiva n膩para岣�). One is deluded in the world of 尘腻测补 due to 补惫颈诲测腻 which has no beginning. Right knowledge at one stroke abolishes the sense of finitude together with the sense of duality.^[21] Ontologically, freedom is the identification of oneself with the transcendental consciousness or the Brahman which is 鈥減ure Bliss鈥�.^[22]

Jainism recognizes deliverance as the freedom of the self from 办腻谤尘颈肠 matter which covers its inherent qualities.^[23]

If we look at the various view points described above, it can be understood that Caraka agrees with all the philosophical systems on the basic issues regarding freedom. He recognizes the phenomenal life as one of suffering and freedom from suffering as the goal of spiritual endeavour. He is of the opinion that the vision or insight into the reality of things will dispel one's illusion and ignorance and thus one can be liberated eternally and irrecoverably from all negative aspects of phenomenal existence by psycho-somatic spiritual endeavour.

Liberation has two aspects: (1) the liberating process and (2) the state of being liberated. The liberating process is a negative one which involves the eradication of suffering, and being liberated, by contrast, is a positive state. Emphasizing the negative phase of eradication, Caraka calls it by the epithets 苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺 and 苍颈惫峁泃迟颈 which echo the Buddhists, the 厂腻峁僰丑测补-Yoga and the 狈测腻测补- 痴补颈艣别峁�i办补. At the same time, with regard to the final state of freedom he agrees with the Ved膩ntins who hold that freedom is the attainment of oneness with the Brahman.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

sav膩san膩samucchedo j帽膩noparama ityeke, 狈测腻测补kandal墨, Pra艣astap膩dabh膩峁�ya., p. 6; 狈测腻测补ma帽jar墨 of 闯补测补苍迟补产丑补峁�峁�补., Part鈥擨I, 81.

[2]:

The word 苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺 litterally means 鈥渆xtinguishing鈥�, as in the extinguishing of a flame and it signifies soteriologically the complete extinguishing of greed, hatred and fundamentally delusion, the forces which power 蝉补峁僺腻谤补. For details see BT, p. 47 - 48.

[3]:

KFL, p. 265.

[4]:

ACJ, p. 4.

[5]:

tasya hetur补惫颈诲测腻, Yogas奴tra, Su 厂奴迟谤补 - sth膩na, II. 24 viparyaya箩帽腻苍补-sa峁僺k膩rasahit膩 vidyeti s奴tr膩rtha岣�, P膩ta帽jalarahasya on ibid., YD, p. 233.

[6]:

vivekakhy膩tiraviplava h膩nop膩ya岣�, Yogas奴tra, Su 厂奴迟谤补 - sth膩na, II. 26. sattvapuru峁Ｄ乶yat膩pratyayo vivekakhy膩ti岣�, Vy膩sabh膩峁�ya on ibid, YD, p. 236.

[7]:

The eight stages are yama, niyama, 腻蝉补苍补, 辫谤腻峁嚹乱腻尘补, praty膩hra 诲丑腻谤补峁嚹�, 诲丑测腻苍补 and 蝉补尘腻诲丑颈. Yogas奴tra, Su 厂奴迟谤补 - sth膩na, II. 29.

[8]:

痴补颈艣别峁�i办补dar艣ana., I. i. 2,

[9]:

痴补颈艣别峁�i办补dar艣ana., I. i. 4.

[10]:

鈥�samast膩tmavi艣e峁�agu峁噊cchedopalak峁�it膩 svar奴pasthitireva鈥�, 狈测腻测补kandal墨, Pra艣astap膩dabh膩峁�ya., p. 692.

[11]:

迟补诲补迟测补苍迟补惫颈尘辞办峁�o'辫补惫补谤驳补岣�, 狈测腻测补s奴tra., I. i. 22.

[12]:

诲耻岣�k丑补janmaprav峁泃ti诲辞峁�amithy膩j帽膩n膩n膩峁� uttarottarap膩ye tadanantarap膩yadapavrgaga岣�, 狈测腻测补s奴tra., I. i. 2.

[13]:

tadabhayamajaramam峁泃yupada峁� bra岣�mak峁�emapr膩ptiriti, 痴腻迟蝉测腻测补苍补 on 狈测腻测补s奴tra., I. i. 22, 狈测腻测补-Bh膩峁�ya of 痴腻迟蝉测腻测补苍补., p.39.

[14]:

nav膩n膩峁� 膩tmagu峁嚹乶膩峁� buddhisukhadu岣�kheccadve峁�a-prayatnadharm膩dharmasa峁僺k膩r膩峁嚹佱箖 nirm奴locchedo'pavarga 颈迟耻办迟补峁� bhavati, 狈测腻测补ma帽jar墨 of 闯补测补苍迟补产丑补峁�峁�补., Part鈥擨I, 77.

[15]:

KFL, p.264.

[16]:

JNS, Vol. I, p. 879.

[17]:

yasmin 辫谤墨迟颈岣� 辫耻谤耻峁�asya tasya lips膩rthalak峁�a峁嚹� vibhaktatv膩t. M. Su, IV. i. 2.

[18]:

na hyabh膩v膩tmaka峁� muktv膩 mok峁�anityatvak膩ra峁嘺峁�, Slokavartika., cited in JNS, Vol. I, p. 879 (F. Notes).

[19]:

sakalabudhy膩divi艣e峁�agu峁嘺vilaye saty膩tmana岣� svar奴p膩vasth膩na峁� mok峁�a iti pr膩bh膩karamata峁�, M膩nameyodaya of N膩r膩ya峁嘺., p.214.

[20]:

EIP, p. 149.

[21]:

ACJ, p. 4.

[22]:

鈥�Brahmaveda brahmaiva bhavati鈥�, Mu峁囜笉aka Upani峁�ad.., III. ii. 9. 膩nand膩tmakabrahm膩v膩pti艣ca mok峁�a岣�, Ved膩ntaparibh膩峁�a of Dharmar膩ja Adhvar墨ndra., p. 204; 苍颈迟测补苍颈谤补迟颈艣补测补蝉耻办丑腻产丑颈惫测补办迟颈谤颈迟测补辫补谤别, Pra艣astap膩dabh膩峁�ya., p. 8.

[23]:

ACJ, p. 4.