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Toxicology (agadatantra or 惫颈峁�a驳补谤补惫补颈谤辞诲丑颈办补辫谤补艣补尘补苍补 or 诲补峁冡梗峁璻腻) is one of the eight branches in ancient Indian medicine. This discipline deals with all sorts of poisons and venoms, as well as their treatments. Accounts of snakebite and poisoning are found in the Chapters on Medicine. In this section, data on snakebite and those on poisoning will first be narrated in separate tables; then 膧yurvedic knowledge on toxicology will be furnished, followed by that in modern medicine.

Cases of snakebite are present in the Vinayas. There is a particular one found in all extant Vinaya 笔颈峁璦办补s, in which a monk was bitten by a snake. The monk is reported dead in most of the records, showing that the snake would probably have been a venomous one. This fact is confirmed by the accounts in the 惭补丑墨艣腻蝉补办补, 厂补谤惫腻蝉迟颈惫腻诲补, and 惭奴濒补蝉补谤惫腻蝉迟颈惫腻诲补 Vinayas that the monk was bitten by a venomous snake.

This case is found in the Dharmaguptaka 叠丑补颈峁�a箩测补蝉办补苍诲丑补办补 and the 惭奴濒补蝉补谤惫腻蝉迟颈惫腻诲补 叠丑补颈峁�a箩测补惫补蝉迟耻, but is put elsewhere in other Vinayas. In order to have a more comprehensive examination of the snakebite cases and their treatments, all relevant accounts found in the Chapters on Medicine, as well as all records of that particular case will be listed in the following table.

罢丑别谤补惫腻诲补:鈥斺�淎t that time a certain monk was bitten by a snake. [The monks] informed this matter to the Exalted One. 鈥業 allow, monks, to give the four great foul things: faeces, urine, ashes, [and] clay.鈥欌赌�^[1]

鈥淎t that time a certain monk was bitten by a snake [and] he had died. [The monks] informed this matter to the Exalted One. 鈥楳onks, that monk certainly did not suffuse the four families of the snake-kings with the mind of loving-kindness. Monks, indeed, if that monk would suffuse the four families of the snake-kings with the mind of loving-kindness, monks, that monk [who] was bitten by a snake surely would not die. What are the four snake-king families? The snake-king family of 痴颈谤奴辫补办办丑补, the snake-king family of 贰谤腻辫补迟丑补, the snake-king family of Chaby膩putta, [and] the snake-king family of Ka峁噃膩gotamaka. Monks, that monk certainly did not suffuse these four snake-king families with the mind of loving-kindness. Monks, indeed, if that monk would suffuse these four snake-king families with the mind of loving-kindness, monks, that monk [who] was bitten by a snake surely would not die. I allow, monks, to suffuse these four snake-king families with the mind of lovingkindness [and] to make a self-protective charm for self-care [and] selfguard. And monks, it should be made thus: 鈥淔or 痴颈谤奴辫补办办丑补s, I have loving-kindness; for 贰谤腻辫补迟丑补s, I have loving-kindness; for Chaby膩puttas, I have loving-kindness; for Ka峁噃膩gotamakas, I have lovingkindness. For those without feet, I have loving-kindness; for those with two feet, I have loving-kindness; [for those] with four feet, I have lovingkindness; [for those] with many feet, I have loving-kindness. One with no feet, don鈥檛 harm me; one with two feet, don鈥檛 harm me; one with four feet, don鈥檛 harm me; one with many feet, don鈥檛 harm me. All creatures, all breathing beings, and all living beings are the whole. May all auspicious ones see. Don鈥檛 approach, any evil. The Buddha is immeasurable. The Dhamma is immeasurable. The 厂补峁僩丑补 is immeasurable. Those creeping animals are having limits: snakes, scorpions, centipedes, spiders, lizards, [and] mice. Shelter is made by me. Protective charm is made by me. May the living beings go back. I bow down to the Exalted One. I bow down to the seven perfectly Enlightened One.鈥� I allow, monks, to release blood.鈥欌赌�^[2]

Dharmaguptaka:鈥斺�淎t that time the Buddha was in 搁腻箩补驳峁沨补. The monks were cutting firewood [for use in] the bathroom. A snake came out of a hollow wood. [It] bit and killed a monk. Then the Buddha, with the mind of lovingkindness, addressed the monks: 鈥楾hat monk did not cultivate the mind of loving-kindness towards those eight dragon-king snakes. Because of that, [he] was killed by the snake. What are the eight [dragon-king snakes]? Piloulecha dragon-king 姣樻〒鍕掑弶榫嶇帇 (痴颈谤奴辫腻办峁�a dragon-king?), the next is called Ganing 浼藉�� (碍腻濒颈办补?), the next is called Gautamaka, the next is called Shipomiduoluo 鏂藉﹩褰屽�氱�� (艢ivamitra?), the next is called Duosheyiluoponi 澶氬ア浼婄緟濠嗗凹 (罢补办峁�a办补-El膩pattra?), the next is called Gapiluoshiboluo 浼芥瘶缇呮繒娉㈢緟 (Kambala-础艣惫补迟补谤补?),^[3] the next is called 顿丑峁泃补谤腻峁ａ弓谤补 dragon-king. If the monk had the mind of lovingkindness for those eight dragon-king snakes, [he] would not have been bitten and killed. If this monk had the mind of loving-kindness for all living beings, [he] also would not have been bitten and killed by that snake.鈥� The Buddha allowed for composing a mantra of the mind of loving-kindness for self-protection: 鈥楲oving-kindness to Piloulecha, loving-kindness to Ganing, loving-kindness to Gautamaka, lovingkindness to Shipomiduoluo, loving-kindness to Duosheyiluoponi, lovingkindness to Gapiluoshibolou, loving-kindness to 顿丑峁泃补谤腻峁ａ弓谤补; the mind of loving-kindness to all dragon-kings, heavenly musicians [and] evil demons. ^[4] Now I cultivate the mind of loving-kindness, [which] removes and destroys all poisons and evils; from this, calmness and recovery are attained. Poisons are cut off, poisons are extinguished, [and] poisons are removed. Homage to the Exalted One.鈥� The Buddha said: 鈥榌I] allow cutting open [the wound] with a knife, releasing the blood, [and] anointing [the wound] with medicine. [I] also allow keeping a big needle-knife^[5] .鈥欌赌�^[6]

惭补丑墨艣腻蝉补办补:鈥斺�淎 monk wanted to start a fire in the bathroom and [he] cut firewood. A snake came out of a hole in a wood and bit [the monk鈥檚] foot. He immediately died. The monks told the Buddha about this [matter]. The Buddha said: 鈥楾hat monk did not know the names of eight kinds of snake. [He had] no benevolent mind towards [them]. He also did not say the mantra, and was [thus] harmed by the snake. Eight kinds of snake are: 顿丑峁泃补谤腻峁ａ弓谤补 snake, Dache snake 鎬涜粖铔� (罢补办峁�a办补?), Yiluoman snake 浼婄緟婕�铔� (El膩pattra?), Shepozi snake 鑸嶅﹩瀛愯泧 (Chaby膩putta?), Ganmoluo鈥檃shiboluohe snake 鐢樻懇缇呴樋婵曟尝缇呭懙铔� (Kambala-础艣惫补迟补谤补?), Pilouluo鈥�acha snake 姣樻〒缇呴樋鍙夎泧 (痴颈谤奴辫腻办峁�a?), Gautamaka snake, [and] Nandopananda^[7] snake. The mantra for snakes is: 鈥淚 have loving-kindness for all dragon-kings, [who are] in heaven and in the world. By this mind of loving-kindness of mine, all poisons of anger are extinguished. I, with the power of wisdom, use [lovingkindness] to kill this poison. Poison with taste [or] poison without taste鈥揵e destroyed and get into the earth.鈥濃�� The Buddha said: 鈥業f that monk used this mantra for self-protection, [he] would not have been harmed and killed by the venomous snake.鈥� Again there was a monk bitten by a snake. The monks told [this] to the Buddha. The Buddha said: 鈥榊ou do chanting for him with this mantra [so as] to cause him to be safe and stable.鈥� [The monks] received the instruction [and] went to do chanting for that [monk] who immediately recovered. Again, everywhere, there were monks bitten by snakes. [They] informed this to the Buddha. The Buddha said: 鈥榌I] allow performing chanting and ritual for curing according to what is suitable.鈥欌赌�^[8]

厂补谤惫腻蝉迟颈惫腻诲补:鈥斺�淎gain there was a monk鈥揵ecause of cutting firewood for having a [warm] bath鈥揳 venomous snake came out of a rotten wood and bit the monk鈥檚 finger. The monk had this thought: 鈥楾his venom certainly enters [my] body.鈥� [He] immediately cut [that] finger by himself. Because of that, [his] finger broke.... The Buddha said: 鈥楩rom now on, [if] there is such a reason, [I] allow wrapping around the finger with a string [and] pricking [the finger] with a knife for releasing the venom.鈥欌赌�^[9]

惭奴濒补蝉补谤惫腻蝉迟颈惫腻诲补 (Sanskrit):鈥斺�淭he occasion was in 艢谤腻惫补蝉迟墨. The community of monks with the Buddha as the chief was invited by a certain householder for a dry hot bath. At that time the Venerable 厂惫腻迟颈 was newly come, young, renounced lately, [and] had come to this teaching and monastic discipline for not long.... He had begun to split firewood. While [he was doing that], he was bitten at the right big toe by a venomous snake coming out of a certain hollow putrid wood. Because of the venom, he had become unconscious [and] had fallen on the ground. He frothed at the mouth. He distorted [his] face, and rolled [his] eyes.... The monks informed this matter to the Exalted One. The Exalted One said: 鈥楳edical treatment should be undertaken after asking a physician.鈥� The physician was [then] asked by the monks [and] he said: 鈥楴oble ones, please offer a foul food.鈥� ^[10] The monks informed this matter to the Exalted One. The Exalted One said: 鈥榌Foul food] should be given on account of the physician鈥檚 instruction.鈥� The monks did not know what kind of foul food [to give]. The physician was asked by them [and] he said: 鈥楴oble ones, your teacher is indeed omniscient. The Exalted One is all-seeing. He surely will know.鈥� The monks informed [this] to the Exalted One. The Exalted One said: 鈥楳onks, foul food is: faeces, urine, ash, and clay. There, faeces is [that] of the recently born young animals, and urine of them. Ash is [that] of five trees: [that] of mountain ebony, [that] of 办补尘墨产补濒补 (wood apple tree?),^[11] [that] of bodhi tree, [that] of cluster fig tree, [and that] of banyan tree. Clay, which is without water [and] four finger-breadths in the ground, should be drawn out. Thus it is the foul food.鈥� Thereupon, foul food was given to the Venerable 厂惫腻迟颈 by the monks. Even so he did not become well. The monks informed this matter to the Exalted One. The Exalted One said: 鈥榊ou will be able, 膧苍补苍诲补, having learned and studied the Great Peacock Spell [in] my vicinity, to give protection to the monk 厂惫腻迟颈...鈥� Then the Exalted One said this Great Peacock Spell at that time: 鈥�Namo Buddh膩ya. Namo Dharm膩ya. 狈补尘补岣� Sa峁僩h膩ya. Tad测补迟丑腻 amale vimale nirmale ma峁僩ale hira峁噛e hira峁噛agarbhe bhadre subhadre samantabhadre 艣r墨bhadre sarv膩rthas膩dhani param膩rthas膩dhani sarv膩narthapra艣amani sarvama峁単alas膩dhani manase mah膩m膩nase acyute adbhute atyadbhute mukte mocani mok峁�a峁噄. Araje viraje am峁泃e amare 补尘补谤补峁噄 brahme brahmasvare p奴r峁噀 p奴r峁嘺manorathe mukte j墨vate 谤补办峁�a 蝉惫腻迟颈峁� sarvopadravabhaya-rogebhya岣� sv膩h膩.鈥� 鈥榊es, Venerable Sir.鈥� The Venerable 膧苍补苍诲补, having learned and studied the Great Peacock Spell [in] the Exalted One鈥檚 vicinity, had undertaken recitation of such a spell to the monk 厂惫腻迟颈. [厂惫腻迟颈] had become free from the venom, just as the former [厂惫腻迟颈].鈥�^[12]

惭补丑腻蝉腻峁僩丑颈办补:鈥斺�淔urthermore, the Buddha lived in 艢谤腻惫补蝉迟墨. It has been elaborated as above. At that time there were two monks [who] stayed in a forest. Then a monk was bitten by a snake [while] smearing the room [with mud]. 鈥� Then [he] at once passed away. The monks, on this account, went to and informed the Buddha. 鈥� The Buddha told the monks: 鈥業f that [monk], [with] the mind of loving-kindness, called the names of the four great dragon-kings, [he] should not have died. Who are the four [dragonkings]? 鈥湺俪筢箾t补谤腻峁ａ弓谤补 dragon-king, dragon-king of Yiluo country 浼婄緟鍦嬮緧鐜� (El膩pattra?), Shanzi dragon-king 鍠勫瓙榫嶇帇 (Chaby膩putta?), Heibai dragon-king 榛戠櫧榫嶇帇 (Ka峁噃膩gotamaka?)鈥揑 have loving-kindness. [For] living beings without legs, I have loving-kindness. [For] living beings with two legs, I have loving-kindness. [For] living beings with four legs, I have loving-kindness. [For] living beings with many legs, I have loving-kindness. Living beings without legs, don鈥檛 harm me. Living beings with two legs, don鈥檛 harm me. Living beings with four legs, don鈥檛 harm me. Living beings with many legs, don鈥檛 harm me. All living beings should attain freedom of taints [as well as] all virtuousness. [Living beings should] see each other with the mind of loving-kindness, and do not raise malice [to each other]^[13] .鈥� If [that] monk has called the names of these four great dragon-kings, [he] should not have died.鈥欌赌�^[14]

There are also a few accounts of poisoning: intake of poison and being poisoned. Such cases were treated by using foul things such as dung and clay. The records are as follows:

罢丑别谤补惫腻诲补:鈥斺�淎t that time a poison was drunk by a certain monk. 鈥業 allow, monks, to cause [him] to drink dung.鈥欌赌�^[15]

鈥淎t that time a certain monk had a sickness [due to being] given a poisonous drink. 鈥業 allow, monks, to cause [him] to drink stirred mud turned up by the plough-share^[16] .鈥欌赌�^[17]

Dharmaguptaka:鈥斺�淎t that time there was a monk who was sick due to poison. The physician instructed [him] to consume putrid medicine.鈥�^[18]

鈥淎t that time a monk was sick due to poison. The physician instructed [him] to consume mud [taken] from a farmland. The Buddha said: 鈥榌I] allow [the mud] to be placed in a receptacle, mixed with water, filtered, accepted and then drunk.鈥欌赌�^[19]

惭补丑腻蝉腻峁僩丑颈办补:鈥斺�淚f [one] is poisoned, [and] the physician says 鈥榌you] should consume the faecal fluid,鈥�...鈥�^[20]

The 厂补尘补苍迟补辫腻蝉腻诲颈办腻 has annotations on the case where the monk was given a poisonous drink and the treatment employed:

鈥溾�楢 sickness [due to being] given a poisonous drink鈥� is an illness originated from a drink [which is] making [the person become] dependent. ^[21] The meaning [of] 鈥榮tirred mud turned up by the ploughshare鈥� is: for tilling with a plough, [there is] mud stuck on the ploughshare. Having mixed [this mud] with water, I allow to cause [the sick one] to drink [it].鈥�^[22]

From the above information, we can notice that treatments for poisoning cases are of two kinds: empirical and religious. Empirical remedies include the use of foul things (including putrid medicines), bloodletting, anointing the wound with medicine, pricking the wound for releasing the venom, and so on. Religious therapy involves the practice of loving-kindness and chanting of protective charm or spell.

According to 膧测耻谤惫别诲补, there are two types of natural poisons: immobile (蝉迟丑腻惫补谤补) and mobile (箩补峁単补尘补). The former refers to those relating to plant parts, latex, minerals, and so on; the latter are those of animals and insects (Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 颁颈办颈迟蝉腻蝉迟丑腻苍补 23. 9-13; 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 碍补濒辫补蝉迟丑腻苍补 (碍补濒辫补蝉迟丑腻苍补) 2. 3-5; 3. 4-5; 础峁ａ弓腻峁単补 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 Uttarasth膩na 35. 4-5).^[23] There is also a type of artificial poisons (驳补谤补-惫颈峁�a), which is formed by mixing various substances (Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 颁颈办颈迟蝉腻蝉迟丑腻苍补 23. 14; 础峁ａ弓腻峁単补 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 Uttarasth膩na 35. 6-7). Entering the body, poisons vitiate blood, damage humours, body tissues, vital points, and organs (especially the heart), and lead to death (厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 碍补濒辫补蝉迟丑腻苍补 2. 1923; 础峁ａ弓腻峁単补 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 Uttarasth膩na 35. 9-10). Abundant information on treatments of poisoning can be found in 膧yurvedic texts. Various measures are used, including both magico-religious and empirical approaches, such as: chanting mantras, wearing amulets; excision of wounds affected by poison and releasing the poison by squeezing or sucking; cauterisation of the wound; sprinkling of cold water or cold bath with medicated water; emesis and purgation;anti-poisonous medicines (in which urine of cows or goats, fluid of cow dung, earth, or alkaline ashes are often utilised) applying at the wound or as collyrium, nasal drug, smoke, or medicated gruel or decoction for consumption;bloodletting (by means of leech, horn, or venesection); consuming special medicines to protect the heart; intake of alkaline medicines (prepared from ashes of plants); and so on (Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 颁颈办颈迟蝉腻蝉迟丑腻苍补 23. 35-37).^[24] Hence, all empirical and religious remedies described in the Buddhist sources are mentioned in the 膧yurvedic texts for curing poisoning cases.

Snakebites are one of the important emergency cases in the world, though not all are afflicted by venomous snakes. There are about two hundred venomous snakes in the world, which are divided into three main groups: Viperidae (which has two subgroups of Viperinae and Crotalinae), Elapidae, and Hydrophidae. Moreover, some Colubridae species are mildly venomous (Rawlins and Vale 2012, 925). Venoms of these snakes are complex mixtures of proteins that not only cause local effects (such as swelling and/or tissue necrosis at the bitten site), but also systemic and life-threatening effects by affecting almost all organ systems (especially cardiovascular, respiratory, neuromuscular, and haematological systems) (Gold, Dart, and Barish 2002, 349-351). First-aid management of the bitten patient should be application of a firm pressure bandage over the wound site and immobilisation of the affected limb, so as to delay the spread of the venom. The snake involved should be identified if possible. The patient is then sent immediately to the nearest medical facility. Previous measures鈥搒uch as applying a tourniquet at or proximal to the bitten site, incision of the bitten wound, suction of venom from the wound, or any manipulation of the wound鈥揳re nowadays discouraged by toxicologists because trauma to the underlying tissues of the wound by these actions may cause more damage especially if performed by unskilled people. Careful monitoring of the patient鈥檚 vital signs and blood coagulation is necessary, and supportive measures should be given. Antivenoms may be required if systemic effects of venom develop, but with caution of allergic reactions. The wound should be cleaned and managed accordingly, such as removal of necrotic tissue, skin grafting, administration of antibiotics, antitetanus prophylaxis, and so on (Gold, Dart, and Barish 2002, 351352; Olson 2012, 1545; Rawlins and Vale 2012, 926).

Poisoning can be due to self-administration (because of improper use of drugs or suicidal attempt), inappropriate administration by physician, accidental ingestion, feeding by another to cause harm, and occupational poisoning (usually via inhalation or skin contact). Substances involved can be diverse, such as various medications (e.g. neurological and psychiatric drugs, cardiovascular drugs, analgesics), illicit substances, pesticides or insecticides, household products (e.g. detergents, disinfectants), ethanol or methanol, carbon monoxide, natural poisons of plants or animals, traditional medicines, and so on. Treatment is mainly supportive by means of ventilatory and circulatory care and support. Management also involves care for other possible problems such as hyper-or hypothermia, arrhythmias, convulsions, coma, stress ulcers and bleeding, skin blisters, rhabdomyolysis (destruction of skeletal muscle fibres with excretion of myoglobin in the urine), and so forth. Specific antidotes for certain drugs or substances may be used. Measures for reducing poison absorption and increasing poison elimination are employed. The former includes removal of substance contact (e.g. on skin, eyes) and gut decontamination (by induced emesis, ^[25] gastric lavage, activated charcoal, and whole bowel irrigation). The latter comprises certain special therapies such as multiple-dose activated charcoal, urine alkalinisation, haemodialysis, and haemodiafiltration (Rawlins and Vale 2012, 909-913).^[26]

In this section, records of snakebite and poisoning found in the Vinayas have been examined. For these poisoning cases, both empirical remedies (such as using foul things like dung, urine, ashes, and mud, releasing venom from a bitten wound, bloodletting and so on) as well as religious means (including the practice of loving-kindness and chanting of a protective charm or spell) were employed. Such approaches of therapy are also noticed in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补 for curing poisoning. In modern medicine, none of these ancient remedies are used. Cures nowadays involve appropriate first-aid management, quick transfer to a medical centre, careful monitoring of vital signs and blood condition, supportive care of major organ functions, measures for dealing with complications, use of an antivenom or an antidote if necessary, wound management, special measures to reduce absorption of toxins and/or to enhance their elimination.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

罢丑别谤补惫腻诲补 Vinaya 笔颈峁璦办补 I. 206: 鈥�tena kho pana samayena a帽帽ataro bhikkhu ahin膩 da峁�峁環o hoti. bhagavato etam 补迟迟补峁� 膩rocesu峁�. anuj膩n膩mi bhikkhave catt膩ri mah膩vik峁�膩ni 诲腻迟耻峁� 驳奴迟丑补峁� 尘耻迟迟补峁� 肠丑腻谤颈办补峁� mattikan ti.鈥�

[2]:

罢丑别谤补惫腻诲补 Vinaya 笔颈峁璦办补 II. 109-110: 鈥�tena kho pana samayena a帽帽ataro bhikkhu ahin膩 da峁�峁環o 办腻濒补峁僰ato hoti. bhagavato etam 补迟迟丑补峁� 膩rocesu峁�. na ha 苍奴苍补 so bhikkhave bhikkhu catt膩ri ahir膩jakul膩ni mettena cittena phari. sace hi so bhikkhave bhikkhu catt膩ri ahir膩jakul膩ni mettena cittena phareyya na hi so bhikkhave bhikkhu ahin膩 da峁�峁環o 办腻濒补峁� kareyya. katam膩ni catt膩ri ahir膩jakul膩ni. 痴颈谤奴辫补办办丑补峁� 补丑颈谤腻箩补办耻濒补峁�, 贰谤腻辫补迟丑补峁� 补丑颈谤腻箩补办耻濒补峁�, Chaby膩putta峁� 补丑颈谤腻箩补办耻濒补峁�, Ka峁噃膩gotamaka峁� ahir膩jakula峁�. na ha 苍奴苍补 so bhikkhave bhikkhu im膩ni catt膩ri ahir膩jakul膩ni mettena cittena phari. sace hi so bhikkhave bhikkhu im膩ni catt膩ri ahir膩jakul膩ni mettena cittena phareyya na hi so bhikkhave bhikkhu ahin膩 da峁�峁環o 办腻濒补峁� kareyya. anuj膩n膩mi bhikkhave im膩ni catt膩ri ahir膩jakul膩ni mettena cittena pharitu峁� attaguttiy膩 atta谤补办办丑腻ya 补迟迟补辫补谤颈迟迟补峁� 办腻迟耻峁�. eva帽 ca pana bhikkhave 办腻迟补产产补峁�: Vir奴pakkhehi me 尘别迟迟补峁�, 尘别迟迟补峁� Er膩pathehi me, Chaby膩puttehi me 尘别迟迟补峁�, 尘别迟迟补峁� Ka峁噃膩gotamakehi ca,| ap膩dakehi me 尘别迟迟补峁�, 尘别迟迟补峁� dvip膩dakehi me, catuppadehi me 尘别迟迟补峁�, 尘别迟迟补峁� bahuppadehi me.| m膩 ma峁� ap膩dako 丑颈峁僺颈, m膩 ma峁� 丑颈峁僺颈 dvip膩dako, m膩 ma峁� catuppado 丑颈峁僺颈, m膩 ma峁� 丑颈峁僺颈 bahuppado.| sabbe 蝉补迟迟腻 sabbe p膩峁嚹� sabbe 产丑奴迟腻 ca 办别惫补濒腻 sabbe bhadr膩ni passantu, m膩 办颈帽肠颈 p膩pam 膩gam膩.| appam膩峁噊 buddho appam膩峁噊 dhammo appam膩峁噊 sa峁単ho, pam膩峁嘺vant膩ni siri峁僺ap膩ni ahivicchik膩 蝉补迟补辫补诲墨 u峁囜箛an膩bhisarab奴 m奴sik膩. 办补迟腻 me 谤补办办丑腻 办补迟腻 me 辫补谤颈迟迟腻, pa峁璱kkamantu 产丑奴迟腻ni, so鈥檋a峁� namo bhagavato namo sattanna峁� samm膩sambuddh膩nan ti. anuj膩n膩mi bhikkhave 濒辞丑颈迟补峁� mocetun ti.鈥� This account is not within the 罢丑别谤补惫腻诲补 Bhesajjakkhandhaka.

[3]:

According to Vogel (1972, 191-192), the two 苍腻驳补谤腻箩补蝉 (snake-kings), Kambala and 础艣惫补迟补谤补, are often coupled together in ancient Indian lore.

[4]:

涔鹃棩濠� is gandharva (heavenly musician). 缇呭墡濞� is 谤腻办峁�a蝉补 (evil demon).

[5]:

According to Kangxi zidian (The Kangxi Dictionary), 閳� means a big needle (Zhang et al. 2005, 1228). It is used for breaking open carbuncles, according to Cihai (The Ocean of Words) (Shu et al. 2005, 1373). Thus 閳瑰垁 should be a kind of knife or instrument which acts as a big needle.

[6]:

罢补颈蝉丑艒 罢谤颈辫颈峁璦办补 1428. 870c22-871a8: 鈥滅埦鏅備經鍦ㄧ帇鑸嶅煄銆傝�告瘮涓樼牬娴村�よ柂锛岀┖鏈ㄤ腑铔囧嚭铻�姣斾笜娈恒�傛檪涓栧皧鎱堝康锛屽憡璜告瘮涓橈細銆屽郊姣斾笜涓嶇敓鎱堝績鏂煎郊鍏�榫嶇帇铔囷紝浠ユ槸鏁呯偤铔囨墍娈恒�備綍绛夊叓锛熸瘶妯撳嫆鍙夐緧鐜嬶紝娆″悕浼藉�э紝娆″悕鐬挎泧鍐ワ紝娆″悕鏂藉﹩褰屽�氱緟锛屾�″悕澶氬ア浼婄緟濠嗗凹锛屾�″悕浼芥瘶缇呮繒娉㈢緟锛屾�″悕鎻愰牠璩磋�楅緧鐜嬨�傛瘮涓樿嫢鎱堝績鏂煎郊鍏�榫嶇帇铔囪�咃紝涓嶇偤铻�娈恒�傝嫢姝ゆ瘮涓樻厛蹇冩柤涓�鍒囩溇鐢熻�咃紝浜︿笉鐐哄郊铔囨墍铻�娈恒�傘�嶄經鑱戒綔鑷�璀锋厛蹇靛應锛氥�屾瘶妯撳嫆鍙夋厛銆佷冀瀵ф厛銆佺灴鏇囧啣鎱堛�佹柦濠嗗綄澶氱緟鎱堛�佸�氬ア浼婄緟鎽╁凹鎱堛�佷冀姣樼緟婵曟尝缇呮厛銆佹彁闋�璩村悞鎱堬紝鎱堝康璜搁緧鐜嬨�佷咕闂ュ﹩銆佺緟鍓庡☉锛屼粖鎴戜綔鎱堝績锛岄櫎婊呰�告瘨鎯★紝寰炴槸寰楀钩寰╋紝鏂锋瘨婊呮瘨闄ゆ瘨锛屽崡鐒″﹩浼藉﹩銆傘�嶄經瑷�锛氥�岃伣鍒�鐮村嚭琛�浠ヨ棩濉椾箣锛屼害鑱界暅閳瑰垁銆傘�嶁��

[7]:

Nanda and Upananda are two 苍腻驳补谤腻箩补蝉. In the Buddhist legend they are often paired together and finally they are considered as one 苍腻驳补谤腻箩补 (Vogel 1972, 192).

[8]:

罢补颈蝉丑艒 罢谤颈辫颈峁璦办补 1421. 171a16-b2: 鈥滄湁涓�姣斾笜娆茬噧娴村�や腑鐏�鐮磋柂锛岃泧寰炴湪瀛斾腑鍑猴紝铻�鑴氬嵆姝汇�傝�告瘮涓樹互鏄�鐧戒經锛屼經瑷�锛氥�屽郊姣斾笜涓嶇煡鍏�绋�铔囧悕锛屼笉鎱堝績鍚戯紝鍙堜笉瑾�鍛�锛岀偤铔囨墍瀹炽�傚叓绋�铔囪�咃細鎻愭〒璩村悞铔囥�佹�涜粖铔囥�佷紛缇呮极铔囥�佽垗濠嗗瓙铔囥�佺敇鎽╃緟闃挎繒娉㈢緟鍛佃泧銆佹瘶妯撶緟闃垮弶铔囥�佺灴鏇囪泧銆侀洠闄�璺嬮洠闄�铔囥�傚應铔囪�咃細銆庢垜鎱堣�搁緧鐜嬶紝澶╀笂鍙婁笘闁擄紝浠ユ垜姝ゆ厛蹇冿紝寰楁粎璜告仛姣掋�傛垜浠ユ櫤鎱у姏锛岀敤涔嬫�烘�ゆ瘨锛屽懗姣掔劇鍛虫瘨锛岀牬婊呭叆鍦板幓銆傘�忋�嶄經瑷�锛氥�岃嫢褰兼瘮涓樹互姝ゅ應鑷�璀疯�咃紝涓嶇偤姣掕泧涔嬫墍鍌锋�恒�傘�嶅京鏈夋瘮涓樿��铔囨墍铻�锛岃�告瘮涓樼櫧浣涳紝浣涜█锛氥�屾睗浠ユ�ゅ應鍛�褰硷紝浠ゅ緱瀹夐毐銆傘��

鍙楁暀寰�鍛�锛屽郊鍗冲緱宸�銆傚京鏈夎�告瘮涓樿檿铏曠偤铔囨墍铻�锛屼互鏄�鐧戒經锛屼經瑷�锛氥�岃伣浣滃應琛擄紝闅ㄥ疁娌讳箣銆傘�嶁�� This account is not within the 惭补丑墨艣腻蝉补办补 叠丑补颈峁�a箩测补诲丑补谤尘补办补.

[9]:

罢补颈蝉丑艒 罢谤颈辫颈峁璦办补 1435. 269b19-27: 鈥滃京鏈夋瘮涓樼偤浣滄荡鐮磋柂鏁咃紝姣掕泧寰炴溄鏈ㄤ腑鍑哄洆姣斾笜鎸囥�傛瘮涓樹綔鏄�蹇碉細銆屾�ゆ瘨蹇呭叆韬�銆傘�嶅嵆鑷�鏂锋寚锛岀敱鏄�鎸囨拝銆�...浣涜█锛氥�屽緸浠婃湁濡傛槸鍥犵罚锛岃伣浠ョ供绾忔寚锛屼互鍒�鍒哄嚭姣掋�傘�嶁�� This account is not within the 厂补谤惫腻蝉迟颈惫腻诲补 叠丑补颈峁�a箩测补诲丑补谤尘补办补.

[10]:

See Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. 鈥渧ik峁泃a鈥�.

[11]:

According to a footnote to this Sanskrit term in the Gilgit Manuscripts (III. 1. 286n2), 办补尘墨产补濒补 is written as kapi-da-ka (嘟�嗉嬥綌嘟侧紜嘟戉紜嘟�嗉�) in the Tibetan version. But both 办补峁兡玝补濒补 and kapidaka are not identifiable. A close term to the latter is kapitthaka, which is wood apple (Feronia elephantum) (A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, s.v. 鈥渒apitthaka鈥�; Dash 2008, 306).

[12]:

Gilgit Manuscripts III. 1. 285-287: 鈥�艣r膩vasty膩峁� nid膩nam | anyatamena g峁沨apatin膩 buddhapramukho bhik峁�usa峁僩ho jent膩kenopanima峁僼rita岣� | tena khalu samayen膩yu峁�m膩n sv膩tirnav膩gatastaru峁噊 'cirapravrajita岣� acir膩gata ima峁� dharmavinayam | 鈥� sa 办腻峁ａ弓丑补峁� p膩峁璦yitum膩rabdho y膩vadanyatamasm膩tp奴tid膩rusu峁�ir膩nni峁�kramy膩艣墨vi峁�e峁嘺 dak峁�i峁噀 p膩d膩峁単u峁ａ弓he 诲补峁ａ弓补岣� | sa vi峁�e峁嘺 sa峁僲奴rchito bh奴mau patito 濒腻濒腻 惫腻丑补测补迟颈 尘耻办丑补峁� ca vibha峁囜笉ayati ak峁�i峁嚹� ca samparivartayati | 鈥� etatprakara峁嘺峁� bhik峁�avo bhagavata 膩rocayanti | bhagav膩n膩ha | 惫补颈诲测补峁� 辫峁涐梗峁璿腻 肠颈办颈迟蝉腻 kartavyeti | bhik峁�ubhirvaidya p峁涐梗峁璦岣� | sa kathayati | 腻谤测腻 vik峁泃abhojanamanuprayacchateti | etatprakara峁嘺峁� bhik峁�avo bhagavata 膩rocayanti | bhagav膩n膩ha | d膩tavya峁� vaidyopade艣eneti | bhik峁�avo na j膩nate k墨d峁浥沘峁� vik峁泃abhojanamiti | tairvaidya岣� p峁涐梗峁璦岣� | sa kathayati | 腻谤测腻 yu峁�m膩kameva 艣膩st膩 sarvaj帽o bhagav膩nsarvadar艣墨 sa eva j帽膩syat墨ti | bhik峁�avo bhagavata 膩rocayanti bhagav膩n膩ha | vik峁泃abhojana峁� bhik峁�ava 耻肠肠腻谤补岣� 辫谤补蝉谤腻惫补艣肠丑腻测颈办腻峁� 尘峁泃迟颈办腻 ca | tatra 耻肠肠腻谤补岣� aciraj膩tak膩n膩峁� vatsak膩n膩峁� te峁Ｄ乵eva ca prasr膩va岣� | ch膩yik膩 pa帽c膩n膩峁� v峁沰峁Ｄ佱箛膩m | k膩帽canasya 办补尘墨产补濒补sy膩艣vatthasyodumbarasya nyagrodhasya| 尘峁泃迟颈办腻 p峁泃hivy膩峁� catura峁単ulam-apan墨yoddhartavy膩 iti vik峁泃abhojanamiti | tato bhik峁�ubhir膩yu峁�mata岣� sv膩tervik峁泃abhojana峁� dattam | tath膩pi na svasth墨bhavati | etatprakara峁嘺峁� bhik峁�avo bhagavata 膩rocayanti | bhagav膩n膩ha | 艣ak峁�yasi tvam膩nanda mam膩ntik膩n尘补丑腻尘腻测奴谤墨峁� vidy膩mudg峁沨ya paryav膩pya sv膩terbhik峁�o 谤补办峁Ｄ佱箖 kartu峁� 鈥� | atha bhagav膩峁僺tasy膩峁� vel膩y膩mim膩峁� 尘补丑腻尘腻测奴谤墨峁� 惫颈诲测腻峁� bh膩峁�ate sma | namo buddh膩ya namo dharm膩ya nama岣� sa峁僩h膩ya | tad测补迟丑腻 amale vimale nirmale ma峁僩ale hira峁噛e hira峁噛agarbhe bhadre subhadre samantabhadre 艣r墨bhadre sarv膩rthas膩dhani param膩rthas膩dhani sarv膩narthapra艣amani sarvama峁単alas膩dhani manase mah膩m膩nase acyute adbhute atyadbhute mukte mocani mok峁�a峁噄 | araje viraje am峁泃e amare (补尘补谤补峁噄) brahme brahmasvare p奴r峁噀 p奴r峁嘺manorathe mukte j墨vate 谤补办峁�a 蝉惫腻迟颈峁� sarvopadravabhayarogebhya岣� sv膩h膩 | 别惫补峁� bhadantety膩yu峁�m膩n膩nando bhagavato'ntik膩n尘补丑腻尘腻测奴谤墨峁� vidy膩mudg峁沨ya paryav膩pya sv膩terbhik峁�o岣� 蝉惫补蝉迟测补测补苍补峁� k峁泃am | nirvi峁�a艣ca sa峁僾峁泃to 测补迟丑腻 paur膩峁嘺岣� |鈥�

[13]:

The 罢补颈蝉丑艒 罢谤颈辫颈峁璦办补 has it here as 鈥滄噳寰楃劇婕�涓赌鍒囱尝鑱栧杽銆傚绩鐩歌��鑾�鑸堟儭鎰忊��, but older editions of Chinese Buddhist canon have it as 鈥滄噳寰楃劇婕�涓赌鍒囱尝鍠勬厛蹇幂浉瑕�鑾�鑸堟儭鎰忊��. My translation is based on the older editions.

[14]:

罢补颈蝉丑艒 罢谤颈辫颈峁璦办补 1425. 389a10-28: 鈥滃京娆′經浣忚垗琛涘煄锛屽唬瑾�濡備笂銆傜埦鏅傛湁浜屾瘮涓橀樋绶磋嫢铏曚綇銆傛檪涓�姣斾笜濉楁埧鐐鸿泧鎵�铻�...鍗充究鍛界祩銆傝�告瘮涓樹互鏄�鍥犵罚寰�鐧戒笘灏娿��...浣涜獮璜告瘮涓橈細銆屽郊鑻ユ厛蹇冪ū鍥涘ぇ榫嶇帇鍚嶈�咃紝鎳変笉鑷虫�汇�備綍绛夊洓锛熸寔鍦嬮緧鐜嬨�佷紛缇呭湅榫嶇帇銆佸杽瀛愰緧鐜嬨�侀粦鐧介緧鐜嬶紝鎴戞湁鎱堛�傜劇瓒崇溇鐢熸垜鏈夋厛锛屽叐瓒崇溇鐢熸垜鏈夋厛锛屽洓瓒崇溇鐢熸垜鏈夋厛锛屽�氳冻鐪剧敓鎴戞湁鎱堛�傜劇瓒崇溇鐢熻帿瀹虫垜锛屽叐瓒崇溇鐢熻帿瀹虫垜锛屽洓瓒崇溇鐢熻帿瀹虫垜锛屽�氳冻鐪剧敓鑾�瀹虫垜銆備竴鍒囩溇鐢熸噳寰楃劇婕忎竴鍒囪尝鑱栧杽锛屽績鐩歌�栵紝鑾�鑸堟儭鎰忋�傝ō浣挎瘮涓樼ū鏄�鍥涘ぇ榫嶇帇鍚嶈�咃紝鎳変笉鑷存�汇�傗��

[15]:

罢丑别谤补惫腻诲补 Vinaya 笔颈峁璦办补 I. 206: 鈥�tena kho pana samayena a帽帽atarena bhikkhun膩 惫颈蝉补峁� 辫墨迟补峁� hoti. anuj膩n膩mi bhikkhave 驳奴迟丑补峁� p膩yetun ti.鈥�

[16]:

The translation of 鈥�s墨t膩lo岣穒峁� p膩yetu峁�鈥� is adopted from Anuruddha 2004, 939.

[17]:

罢丑别谤补惫腻诲补 Vinaya 笔颈峁璦办补 I. 206: 鈥�tena kho pana samayena a帽帽atarassa bhikkhuno gharadinnak膩b膩dho hoti. anuj膩n膩mi bhikkhave s墨t膩lo岣穒峁� p膩yetun ti.鈥�

[18]:

罢补颈蝉丑艒 罢谤颈辫颈峁璦办补 1428. 871a8: 鈥滅埦鏅傛湁姣斾笜鐥呮瘨锛岄啱鏁欐湇鑵愮垱钘ャ�傗��

[19]:

罢补颈蝉丑艒 罢谤颈辫颈峁璦办补 1428. 871a11-13: 鈥滅埦鏅傜梾姣掓瘮涓橈紝閱�鏁欐湇鐢颁腑娉ワ紝浣涜█锛氥�岃伣浠ュ櫒鐩涙按鍜屼箣婕夌劧寰屽彈椋层�傘�嶁��

[20]:

罢补颈蝉丑艒 罢谤颈辫颈峁璦办补 1425. 504c15: 鈥滆嫢琚�姣掞紝閱�瑷�锛氥�屾噳鏈嶅ぇ渚挎眮銆傘��...鈥� This is not within the Chapter on Medicine parallel in the 惭补丑腻蝉腻峁僩丑颈办补 Vinaya.

[21]:

See Pali-English Dictionary, s.v. 鈥�惫补蝉墨掳鈥�. Anuruddha (2004, 371) interprets this as a sickness caused by a drink given by a charmer.

[22]:

厂补尘补苍迟补辫腻蝉腻诲颈办腻 V. 1092: 鈥�gharadinnak膩b膩dho ti vasikara峁嘺p膩nakasamu峁�峁環itarogo. sit膩lo岣穒n ti na峁単alena kasantassa ph膩le laggamattika峁� udakena 膩lo岣積tv膩 p膩yetu峁� anuj膩n膩m墨鈥檛i attho.鈥�

[23]:

In 膧yurvedic texts, three kinds of snakes are mentioned. They are classified by their appearance, quality of venom, and the bite wound caused by them. None of the names of the snake types or families mentioned in the above Buddhist sources are found in these medical texts (Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 颁颈办颈迟蝉腻蝉迟丑腻苍补 23. 123129; 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 碍补濒辫补蝉迟丑腻苍补 4. 9-13; 础峁ａ弓腻峁単补 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 Uttarasth膩na 36. 1-6).

[24]:

In the 膧yurvedic treatises, there are chapters discussing poisoning and its treatments. For details, see Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 颁颈办颈迟蝉腻蝉迟丑腻苍补 23; 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 碍补濒辫补蝉迟丑腻苍补 2-8; 础峁ａ弓腻峁単补 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 Uttarasth膩na 35-38.

[25]:

Emesis can be induced, for example, by syrup of ipecac. But nowadays this method is not encouraged because of the risk of pulmonary aspiration and of the delayed use of more effective treatments. Ingestion of faeces, faecal fluid or mud in the Buddhist sources might aim at induced emesis.

[26]:

Some poisons and/or their by-products are eliminated via the liver and bile into the bowel. They may be soluble in lipids and would then undergo the enterohepatic reabsorption process. Thus they are difficult to be excreted. As Genius (2011, 11) points out, certain clays can act as absorbents in the bowel, reduce this enterohepatic reabsorption of lipophilic substances and toxins, and enhance the elimination of the toxins. This may explain why mud was used as a remedy for poisoning in ancient India as shown in the Buddhist accounts and in 膧yurvedic texts.