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Citrabh膩nu was born in Takhatagarha (笔腻濒墨 district) of 搁腻箩补蝉迟丑腻苍补 in 1922. He was ordained as a Jaina monk, Candraprabhas膩gara, at the age of twenty, in 1942, by 膧肠腻谤测补 S膩gar腻苍补苍诲补 (1874鈥�1950) in 艢惫别迟腻尘产补谤补 惭奴谤迟颈辫奴箩补办补.^[1] He spent the first five years of his monkhood in silence and meditation. In 1970, he gave up monkhood in order to attend the Second Spiritual Summit Conference in Geneva. After traveling to Africa and Europe, he went to the USA in 1971 and married his long time lay follower (艣谤腻惫颈办腻) 笔谤补尘辞诲腻 (Rosenfield, 1981). In 1973, he founded the Jaina Meditation International Centre in New York City, the first Jaina meditation centre in the western world.

A question arises as to why Citrabh膩nu started this new 鈥淛aina meditation鈥� in the western world. An answer can be found in his role as a populariser, who was very active in reshaping "Jainism" for a modern audience. He moved outside the traditional code of conduct (尘补谤测腻诲腻) of a monk and started working as a lay guru. When Citrabh膩nu came to the USA in the 1970鈥檚, the Transcendental Meditation (产丑腻惫腻迟墨迟补 诲丑测腻苍补) of 惭补丑别艣补 测辞驳墨 (1918鈥�2008) was very popular and was widely known in its abbreviated form as 鈥楾M鈥�. Similar to TM, the abbreviation 鈥楯M鈥� came to Citrabh膩nu鈥檚 mind for Jaina Meditation. During 1970鈥檚 few had heard the word Jaina, so in order to bring awareness to the people of the western world and understanding of the Jaina Religion, he called his centre JMIC i.e. Jain Meditation International Centre (Personal communication with Citrabh膩nu on 15 June鈥�2015).

In many ways, Jaina ascetics, such as Citrabh膩nu, who left their 蝉补峁単丑补蝉, can be seen as part of a transformation of the role of the Jaina monk in the 20^th century. For example, Citrabh膩nu and others like him moved from being an impersonal ritualised renouncer (i.e. a traditional monk) with whom the laity interacted largely with impersonal rituals of veneration (惫补苍诲补苍腻) to a personalised guru, with whom the laity interacted more personally (although still with devotion and respect)鈥揺ating with him, sitting with him and interacting with him. In this way, many Jaina monks became lay gurus, nearer to the equivalent of Hindu gurus. Lyssa Miller, a meditation student and editor of Citrabh膩nu鈥檚 books depicts his open vision and working style in his own words: 鈥業 do not want to teach people their duties or any doctrine of religion. I want to arouse them from their complacencies, to stir their hearts, to vivify their imagination, to bring them from their little selves to the Higher, of which they are capable鈥� (Citrabh膩nu, 1979: viii). His role is different from that of a traditional Jaina guru.

Citrabh膩nu engaged in some self-experiments in meditation at Mt. Abu during his monkhood and is said to have achieved a state of enlightenment (Rosenfield, 1981:202鈥�7). Furthermore, after thirty-eight years of meditative experience, Citrabh膩nu developed or refined his own meditation system. He wrote many books on Jainism, four of which are related to meditation namely: Ten Days Journey into the Self (1974/2000), Realize What You Are: The Dynamics of Jain Meditation^[2] (1978/1995), Twelve Facets of Reality: The Jain Path to freedom^[3] (1980), and The Psychology of Enlightenment: Meditation on the Seven Energy Centres (1979). Thus he became the first Jaina teacher to produce his meditational books in English with the help of various English compilers and editors.

The foundation of Citrabh膩nu鈥檚 main meditation technique consists of three steps (迟谤颈辫补诲墨). These steps are: 1. who am I? (kohum), 2. I am not that (nahum) (not non-self), 3. I am that (sohum) (I am the self). A similar question is raised in 膧c膩r膩峁単a-蝉奴迟谤补₁ (1.1) but the answer approach is different in that 膧c膩r膩峁単a-蝉奴迟谤补₁ relates its answer to the worldly existence of the self. In the case of Citrabh膩nu the ideology appears to be akin to the method of neti-惫腻诲补 (via negation or 鈥渘ot this, not this鈥�) as advocated in Ved膩ntic philosophy. This method is applied to gain the knowledge of brahman, the supreme reality, which is real and the rest world being unreal or illusory. However, Citrabh膩nu continued to use the dualistic approach of Jainism i.e. 鈥淚 am not the non-living (补箩墨惫补) or this material world, but I am the self.鈥� This can be seen as a type of analytical meditation (vicaya-诲丑测腻苍补).

Citrabh膩nu uses ancient meditative practices from Jaina texts such as the twelve reflections (产丑腻惫补苍腻) and Jaina and non-Jaina mantras. The rest of his meditation is based on ha峁環a-yogic texts and Hindu yoga terminology. He draws his meditative style from his previous experiences of ascetic life without citing any Jaina texts to support his practices. Marks (1995: xi) states about his meditation that 鈥楯ain meditation is designed for us to experience ourselves in the deepest spiritual sense. The aim is to go beyond mere words and concepts, to realise what is permanent in ourselves, and to approach the world from the central reality鈥�.

An analysis of his writings reveals that his meditative practices can be categorised into the following three main parts:

(1) Meditation on 产丑腻惫补苍腻s (reflections);
(2) Meditation on various mantras; and
(3) Meditation on seven cakras (energy centres/wheels).

The major part of his meditation is based on the twelve reflections (产丑腻惫补苍腻s), which are believed to cultivate and reveal the inherent perfection and radiant quality of an enlightened human consciousness. These twelve reflections (产丑腻惫补苍腻s) are mentioned as acts of contemplation (补苍耻辫谤别办峁Ｄ�)^[4] in the Tattav膩rtha-蝉奴迟谤补 (罢补迟迟惫腻谤迟丑补-蝉奴迟谤补₁, 9.7). The purpose of these meditative practices is to 鈥渙ffer contemplations, [and] pathways, [and to] open windows from which to see and feel the freshness of life鈥� (Rosenfield, 1980: xvi). In each reflection (产丑腻惫补苍腻), he presents a positive aspect of a harsh reality of life such as focussing on the new life emerging in the form of a bud rather than the withering of a flower. Some of these 产丑腻惫补苍腻s, focus on life instead of death; on fullness instead of scarcity; on inner strength instead of dependency; on unity instead of alienation. Thus, his focus is on positivity rather than negation. Citrabh膩nu presents these 产丑腻惫补苍腻s with a modern and pragmatic vision. Indeed, his utilisation of ancient terms in a contemporary fashion makes them palatable to modern practitioners. In his meditative vision, all the negative aspects and harsh realities of the reflection are transformed into a positive expression.

These 产丑腻惫补苍腻s are:

The changeless beneath the changes (anitya 产丑腻惫补苍腻), our protection in an unprotected world (补艣补谤补峁嘺 产丑腻惫补苍腻), liberation from the cycle of birth and death (蝉补峁僺腻谤补 产丑腻惫补苍腻), freedom from dependency (ekatva 产丑腻惫补苍腻), the search of the incomparable (anyatva 产丑腻惫补苍腻), the flame in the candle (a艣uci 产丑腻惫补苍腻), observing the in-flow of vibrations (膩艣rava 产丑腻惫补苍腻), the art of the full-stop (samvara 产丑腻惫补苍腻), the art of cleansing (苍颈谤箩补谤腻 产丑腻惫补苍腻), the nature of the universe (loka 产丑腻惫补苍腻), the rare occasion (bodhidurlabha 产丑腻惫补苍腻) and the nature of our nature (dharma 产丑腻惫补苍腻) (Citrabh膩nu, 1980: 5).

He focuses more on a spiritual path rather than a religious path. However, monastic culture is mirrored in these 产丑腻惫补苍腻s. Thus, Citrabhanu re-interpreted a traditional system that was confined to Jaina monastics and made it appealing and accessible to modern-day Jaina, as well as non-Jaina communities. Again this is a way of 鈥渦sing old models for new purposes鈥� (Fl眉gel, 2009: 4). A later text Ten Days Journey into the Self is also a meditational text, which is based on the four positive 产丑腻惫补苍腻s of amity (maitri), appreciation (pramoda), compassion (办补谤耻峁嚹�) and equanimity (尘腻诲丑测补蝉迟丑补). These meditations are part of his famous 骋耻箩补谤腻迟墨 song, Stream of the disposition of amity (maitri bh膩vanu pavitra 箩丑补谤补峁嘘).

After a long practice of meditation in solitude and silence on Mount 膧bu, he realised the answer to his question mentioned below:

What are the minimum virtues necessary for anyone if he is to rightly think of himself as an enlightened person? The answer that came to me was the four virtues taught by 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补, which I put into words and music in what I have called 鈥淭he Immortal Song鈥�. It begins, 鈥淢ay the sacred stream of amity flow forever in my heart. May the universe prosper; such is my cherished desire (Citrabh膩nu, 2000: 7).

These four 产丑腻惫补苍腻s are well known in Buddhist texts as the state of Brahma or abode of Brahma (产谤补丑尘补惫颈丑腻谤补) and they are also a part of the Yoga-蝉奴迟谤补 of 笔补迟补帽箩补濒颈 (Yoga-蝉奴迟谤补₁, 3.23). Although these 产丑腻惫补苍腻s are not visible as a systematised group in the early canonical literature, they appear later in Kundkunda鈥檚 Prakrit monograph, 痴腻谤补蝉蝉补补峁嘘惫别办办丑腻 (1鈥�8 c. CE), as a set of twelve. These reflections are later developed as a set of sixteen 产丑腻惫补苍腻s in the Sanskrit text, 艢膩ntasudh膩rasa 产丑腻惫补苍腻, of Vinayavijaya (17^th c. CE).

According to Citrabh膩nu, meditation is an individualistic practice that varies between practitioners. Although he advocates group meditation at the experiential level, everyone has his or her own personalised understanding and development. However, in this text, considering meditation as a tool to promote the quality of 鈥渃oncord鈥�, he explains thus: 鈥榗oncord comes from the word 鈥渃ardia鈥�, meaning heart, so it means our hearts are together鈥� (Citrabh膩nu, 2000: 30). Such togetherness creates a platform of harmony. In the meditation of 鈥渃reative action鈥�, one should try to find divinity within. Such ideas plausibly mirror (罢补迟迟惫腻谤迟丑补-蝉奴迟谤补₁, 5.21) the ideology of the Tattav膩rtha-蝉奴迟谤补鈥檚 鈥�souls render service to one another鈥� which advocates the wellbeing of all and, urges the transformation of destructive actions into constructive actions (Citrabh膩nu, 2000: 50鈥�51).^[5] Such practices are innovative and demonstrate openness without any particular religious affiliation.

Meditation on overcoming one鈥檚 inner enemies is based on the Jaina mantra 鈥�峁嘺尘辞 补谤颈丑补苍迟腻峁嘺峁�鈥�. By meditating on arihanta, one hopes to imbibe the virtues of arhanta, free from the inner enemies of anger, ego and so on (Citrabh膩nu, 1974: 34鈥�35). Explaining meditation on joy, he describes the real joy as, 鈥榯he true joy, in being alive, the joy of essence, and the self in which we are united within ourselves and with the universe鈥� (Ibid. 2000: 37). Citrabh膩nu explains that while meditating on energy one should realize, 鈥業 am the spirit and the light of conscious energy, within me, around me鈥� (Ibid. 2000: 43).

He states that this form of meditation is different from those of other schools, which need difficult practices in addition to religious discipline compared to his 鈥渋nstant meditation鈥� which has simple self-reflection for the change of one鈥檚 mindset. The sole purpose of this meditation is to overcome negativity, to enhance potentiality, to realize permanence in ourselves and to bring about a constant awareness of the self through the practice of reflections (Marks, 1995: xi).

This meditation process uses mantras to develop into deeper levels of the soul such as 鈥�惫墨谤耻尘 (惫墨谤补峁�), sohum (蝉辞鈥檋补峁�), kohum (办辞鈥檋补峁�), shivam shanti (艣颈惫补峁� 艣腻苍迟颈), mano ramam (尘补苍辞谤补峁�), 谤腻尘 (谤腻尘a岣�), aim (补颈峁�), 辫谤补驳苍腻 (辫谤补箩帽腻), 丑谤墨峁� (丑谤墨峁�) and om (辞峁�) arham namah (补谤丑补峁� 苍补尘补岣�)鈥� (Citrabh膩nu, 1979: 90鈥�1). He explains that 惫墨谤耻尘 means 鈥渂rave amongst the brave鈥� (Citrabh膩nu, 1995: 48). When one practices this mantra, one becomes charged with positive energy. He documents this mantra meditation practice in a simple manner without any ritual complexity. There are three steps involved in using this mantra. The first is to articulate the 惫墨谤耻尘 sound loudly and feel the vibrations around oneself. This is thought, to soothe and bring calmness to the meditator. The second step involves experiencing 惫墨谤耻峁� on one鈥檚 breath silently. The 鈥�惫墨鈥� is felt while inhaling and 鈥�谤耻峁�鈥� while exhaling. The third step assimilates the mantra with the inner-self. In this state of meditation, the energy centre, which results in mystical experiences is thought to open (Citrabh膩nu, 1995: 48鈥�49). These three steps lead from the gross physical level to the subtle mental level and finally to the subtlest level of the self.

The third type of meditation deals with seven energy centres, which are located in the body. These seven energy centres correspond to the seven levels of consciousness. These centres are the same as the cakras of the tantra system. Citrabh膩nu employs various symbols, mantras and colours, as well as the five elements (尘补丑腻产丑奴迟补) and the five senses (indriyas) in this meditation system. The purpose of this meditation is to attune with each aspect of the innate energy, which is capable of healing the body and mind and of maintaining inner balance (Citrabh膩nu, 1979: 88)

According to Citrabh膩nu, one must take notice of the interaction between mind, emotions and the physical organism. How one feels about himself affects the way we conduct our lives and ultimately influences our health. The seven levels of consciousness or energy centres on which we are to meditate are nothing but points of awareness from which we can begin to determine our true nature. Citrabh膩nu states that as we become aware of our perfect nature we can begin to participate consciously in the healing process.

Citrabh膩nu鈥檚 three types of meditation are presented in a system, which is devoid of religiosity and presents a path for all Jainas and non-Jainas. Citrabh膩nu though titles it as JM, did not link his meditation system to the canonical literature and kept these practices very simple and easy to understand by one and all. However, this form of meditation is very common in ancient Jaina, Buddhist and Hindu literature. In his meditative system, Citrabh膩nu discusses traditional 产丑腻惫补苍腻s, which are one of the limbs of the eight limbed 辫谤别办峁Ｄ� meditation system. However, 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 presents them in a different mode, which is related to modern problems, which are discussed in detail in chapter 4. Citrabh膩nu worked on the old corpus of reflections and presented them in a new perspective. Instead of highlighting the negative aspects of a 产丑腻惫补苍腻, he presented a positive perspective. Traditionally, these 产丑腻惫补苍腻s were practised by Jain monastics, seeking to develop detachment from the material world. Mah膩praj帽a, on the other hand composed some new 产丑腻惫补苍腻 lyrics, which are modern representations of his 辫谤别办峁Ｄ伝宄蟛饽宀圆�. His focus was on the reflection on bliss (腻苍补苍诲补-产丑腻惫补苍腻), reflection on auspiciousness (尘补峁単补濒补-产丑腻惫补苍腻), and food-related reflection (bhojanak膩l墨na 产丑腻惫补苍腻).

Citrabh膩nu also employed various mantras and the seven cakras, which are tantric elements, whereas in 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补, Mah膩praj帽a introduced thirteen psychic centres, which are very close to the cakra system of ha峁環a-yoga (see chapter 4). He accepted mantra as a sub-limb of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补.

Citrabh膩nu is the first to publish methods of modern Jaina meditation, for all walks of life. He has been successful in the modernisation of Jaina meditation by including Jaina reflection (产丑腻惫补苍腻), esoteric mantra and ha峁環a-yogic cakra with elements of psychology. He worked as a monk and then as a lay Guru. By publishing in English, he became very successful and popular amongst the diasporic Jaina population. His popularity grew very quickly, especially in the USA, Canada and Africa, where he worked with his modern approach among non-Jainas and non-Indians too (i.e. with Jainas and non-Jainas).

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

S膩gar膩nnada (1874鈥�1950) is very famous as the restorer of Jaina canon (腻驳补尘辞诲诲丑腻谤补办补).

[2]:

This work is a series of nine talks given on various occasions by Citrabh膩nu to his students at Jaina Meditation International, New York, Chicago Yoga Conference, Central Park New York, Universalist Church of New York in 1974, 1976, 1977 (Marks, 1995: xiii).

[3]:

This work is a series of twelve talks given by Citrabh膩nu to his students at the Jaina Meditation International Centre from March 2 to May 18, 1977 (Rosenfield, Clare, 1980: xvii).

[4]:

罢补迟迟惫腻谤迟丑补-蝉奴迟谤补₁, 9.7 anitya-补艣补谤补峁嘺-蝉补峁僺腻谤补-aikatva-anytva-补艣耻肠颈迟惫补-腻蝉谤补惫补-蝉补峁僾补谤补-苍颈谤箩补谤腻-loka-产辞诲丑颈诲耻谤濒补产丑补诲丑补谤尘补蝉惫腻办丑测腻迟补迟惫腻苍耻肠颈苍迟补苍补尘 补苍耻辫谤别办峁Ｄ佱弗.

[5]:

罢补迟迟惫腻谤迟丑补-蝉奴迟谤补₁, 5.21 parasparopagroho j墨v膩n膩m.