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It is essential to address the question of why, apparently, only 艢惫别迟腻尘产补谤补 sects developed modern systems of meditation, and why these appeared primarily in the second half of the 20^th century. The forms of meditation mentioned earlier in this chapter reveal that only the 艢惫别迟腻尘产补谤补 tradition developed some modern meditative techniques in its three main traditions: 惭奴谤迟颈辫奴箩补办补, 厂迟丑腻苍补办补惫腻蝉墨 and Ter膩panth墨. The question arises as to why no such developments occurred in the Digambara tradition. In order to address this question, various ancient sources such as Tattav膩rtha-厂奴迟谤补, 狈颈测补尘补蝉腻谤补, Tattav膩nu艣膩sanam and the scholarly views of Cort, Fl眉gel and the Digambar Jaina devotee Shugan, have been taken into account, as also field research undertaken.

The 罢补迟迟惫腻谤迟丑补-蝉奴迟谤补_1, a text that is accepted as authoritative by both Digambaras and 艢惫别迟腻尘产补谤补s, states that pure meditation (sukla-诲丑测腻苍补) is unattainable in the current time-cycle. 罢补迟迟惫腻谤迟丑补-蝉奴迟谤补₁ (9.41鈥�42) states that the first two types: multiple contemplation (辫峁泃丑补办迟惫补-vitarka-蝉补惫颈肠腻谤补) and unitary contemplation (补颈办补迟惫补-惫颈迟补谤办补-苍颈谤惫颈肠腻谤补) of pure meditation can only be achieved by monks who are well-versed in the knowledge of the 辫奴谤惫补蝉,^[1] known as 艣ruta 办别惫补濒墨s^[2]. It says that the last two types of pure meditation, subtle infallible physical activity (蝉奴办峁�m补-办谤颈测腻-辫谤补迟颈辫腻迟颈) and irreversible stillness of the soul (vyuparata-办谤颈测腻-补苍颈惫峁泃迟颈) can be attained only by the omniscient ones (办别惫补濒墨).⁴⁴⁴ The 辫奴谤惫补蝉 and kevali are both considered extinct and therefore, one can only perform dharma 诲丑测腻苍补, a form of self-study (蝉惫腻诲丑测腻测补)^[3] in the current era. As we also observe the corelationship in Sth膩n膩峁単a-蝉奴迟谤补 (4.67) presenting four types of supports for meditation,^[4] which are but the abridged categories of self-study.

This notion is accepted by both 艢惫别迟腻尘产补谤补s and Digambaras. Consequently, both 艢惫别迟腻尘产补谤补s and Dig膩mbaras went on to develop various meditative techniques in the medieval period, which took the form of virtuous meditation (dharma-诲丑测腻苍补) rather than bright or pure meditation (艣耻办濒补-诲丑测腻苍补). Among Digambaras, R膩masena and 艢耻产丑补肠补苍诲谤补 were particularly prolific in assisting this development. R膩masena (Tattv膩nu艣膩sana, 82, 86) specifically mentions that, 鈥榯hose who assert that this is not the appropriate temporal period to engage in meditation proclaim their ignorance of the Jain doctrine.鈥� He queries why, even if today there is no one who can follow the advanced methods of ascetic conduct (测补迟丑腻办丑测茫迟补-肠腻谤颈迟谤补), ascetics do not practise meditation according to their ability^[5] (tr, Dundas, 2014: 152). This is therefore a recommendation from R膩masena advocating ascetics not to discontinue meditative practices simply because pure meditation is not available in this current era.

However, despite these developments in the medieval period, an emphasis on selfstudy (蝉惫补诲丑测腻测补) as a mode of meditation emerged from Kundakunda^[6] (4^th鈥�^th c. CE) onwards, which remained strong in the medieval and modern periods. An example of this development is the emphasis on the practice of equanimity (蝉腻尘腻测颈办补) within the 20^th century Digambara sects, which incorporates 蝉惫腻诲丑测腻测补. It is evident that 蝉腻尘腻测颈办补 is closely connected to the obligatory (腻惫补艣测补办补) rituals as first part of it (膧va艣yaka-蝉奴迟谤补, 2, 惭奴濒腻肠腻谤补, 51838). Thus, during my visit (2006) to 膧肠腻谤测补 Vidy膩nanda (b. 1925), a prominent Digambara monk, at Kundakunda 叠丑腻谤补迟墨, New Delhi, I observed a quote inscribed on the wall: 鈥榮elf-study [of scripture] is meditation鈥� (蝉补箩箩丑腻测补 meva 箩丑腻峁嘺峁�). It was noted by the researcher during this visit that Digambara ascetics performed the practice of 蝉腻尘腻测颈办补 for 48 minutes after eating, during which they also did various parts of 蝉惫腻诲丑腻测补.^[7] In these and other Jain traditions, 蝉惫腻诲丑测腻测补 in 蝉腻尘腻测颈办补 consists of self-study of the scriptures (艣腻蝉迟谤补) by repeating 蝉奴迟谤补蝉 that have been learnt by rote (辫补谤颈惫补谤迟补苍腻), followed by the contemplation of the meaning (补苍耻辫谤别办峁Ｄ�) of these verses of the text.

During my fieldwork in India in 2014, I observed that in the life of Digambara ascetics, such as Vidy膩nanda and 腻谤颈测颈办腻 J帽膩namati (b. 1934) (尘腻迟腻箩颈), 蝉腻尘腻测颈办补 is an ongoing daily practice. Considering the impossibility of pure meditation in this era and the development of ritualistic forms of meditation within the 蝉腻尘腻测颈办补 practice, the researcher鈥檚 contention is that dharma-诲丑测腻苍补 centered on 蝉惫腻诲丑测腻测补 has resulted in little or no attention being directed towards the creation of modern forms of meditation. This view is also supported by Jaini, who states in the context of medieval development, 鈥業t is interesting to note that, although Jainas have developed such meditative exercise as 蝉补尘腻测颈办补 and the aforementioned types of dharama-dhyana, they have traditionally paid scant attention to the more magical paths of awakening so heavily preferred by other Indian schools鈥� (Jaini, 2001: 254). Even today Jaini鈥檚 thoughts are relevant in the framework of other modern Jaina development.

In support of 蝉惫腻诲丑腻测补, Johnson (1995: 194) describes 蝉腻尘腻测颈办补 in the Digambara context as a practice of meditation on the self, based on a section of the 狈颈测补尘补蝉腻谤补 (Niyamvas膩ra) of Kundakunda called 鈥�parama-蝉补尘腻诲丑颈鈥� (Niyamvas膩ra, 122鈥�133). He mentions that parama蝉补尘腻诲丑颈 is a state of meditation on the self through dharma-诲丑测腻苍补 and 艣耻办濒补-诲丑测腻苍补. Here the latter, 艣耻办濒补-诲丑测腻苍补, is relevant only to the early period of Jainism according to 罢补迟迟惫腻谤迟丑补-蝉奴迟谤补₁. Further, early Digambara texts on conduct, such as the 惭奴濒腻肠腻谤补 of Va峁�峁璦kera (2^nd - 3^rd c. CE), state that during the practice of 蝉腻尘腻测颈办补, one should perform virtuous meditation (dharma-诲丑测腻苍补) and pure meditation (艣耻办濒补-诲丑测腻苍补), and avoid afflicted (腻谤迟迟补) and wrathful (raudra) meditation.^[8] It is evident from the above, that 蝉腻尘腻测颈办补 and meditation are inseparable. It may, therefore, be the case that as 蝉腻尘腻测颈办补 became increasingly ritualistic over time, its more meditative aspects, which may be considered closest to pure meditation, were lost and with this a possible source and impetus for the development of new forms of meditation.

Moreover, John Cort notes, 鈥榯he development of popular forms of meditation for individual practice in modern Jainism is part of a transformation of the role of the Jaina monk in the 20^th century, from an impersonal ritualized renouncer, with whom the laity interacted largely in terms of impersonal rituals of veneration (惫补苍诲补苍腻) to a personalized guru, with whom the laity interacted personally in terms of personal, often times pastoral bhakti. In this way, many Jain monks have become analogues of the Hindu gurus.鈥� Cort goes on to say, 鈥榯he Digambara muni tradition has come to this transformation much later than the 艢惫别迟腻尘产补谤补 traditions. It is really only in the past 20-30 years that we see the rise of charismatic, personalised Digambara monks, who are concerned to reach out to a large lay audience.鈥� (J. Cort, personal communication, 4 June 2015). It is in the context of these more personalised guru traditions by which Cort believes modern meditative techniques may have developed. Thus the late rise of the Digambara personalized muni traditions may be the main reason why, despite a rich medieval history of Digambara monastic and lay meditative practice, associated with Kundakunda, R膩masena, 艢耻产丑补肠补苍诲谤补 and 膧峁Ｄ乨hara, specifically modern systems of Digambara meditation have not emerged in 20^th and 21^st century. Cort鈥檚 understanding is one perspective on the lack of modern forms of Digambara meditation, though there may be many more reasons.

In addition, an alternative analysis is that of Fl眉gel (2012c, 2015^[9]), who believes that aniconic Svet膩mbara sects may have developed modern forms of meditation as a consequence of their rejection of image worship. In contrast, Fl眉gel believes that sects who focus on image-worship such as the Digambara and 惭奴谤迟颈辫奴箩补办补 艢惫别迟腻尘产补谤补 traditions have not produced any modern forms of meditation. However, I would suggest that Fl眉gel鈥檚 viewpoint could be refuted. Many iconic supporters of sects which focus on image-worship have also developed modern forms of meditation such as Citrabh膩nu鈥檚 Jaina Meditation, Bhadrankavijaya鈥檚 S膩lambana-诲丑测腻苍补 and Candraprabhas膩gara鈥檚 Sambodhi-诲丑测腻苍补.

Furthermore, a devout lay scholar of the Digambara tradition, Shugan Jain, has suggested in a personal interview that it may be because of the extinction of pure meditation that Digambara 腻肠腻谤测补蝉 have not paid attention to constructing modern forms of meditation.^[10] He supported his argument with Jinasena鈥檚 惭补丑腻辫耻谤腻峁嘺 (8鈥�^th c. CE), which pronounced the inability to observe all the twelve austerities.^[11] It is evident that meditation is a part of twelve austerities.

This is not to say that there may not be emerging forms of modern meditation in the traditions of individual Digambara munis. Perhaps there may be many modern personalised munis in Digambara tradition. Due to a lack of empirical data on forms of meditation in contemporary Digambara traditions, this view remains speculative yet plausible.

In conclusion, the researcher does not assert that there are no meditative practices within the Digambara tradition. The field work suggests that there are elements of various practices such as 蝉腻尘腻测颈办补, 蝉惫腻诲丑测腻测补 which can be construed as forms of meditation, though there is no evidence to suggest that there has been a development of a systemized modern form of meditation which has been developed during the 20^th and 21^st century. This may account, in part, for the lack of development of modern meditative techniques in Digambara sects. Thus, this question deserves more research and can only be speculated about at the moment.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

笔奴谤惫补蝉 are the 鈥榣ost鈥� collections of fourteen ancient texts mentioned in the Jaina canonical literature (腻驳补尘补).

[2]:

罢补迟迟惫腻谤迟丑补-蝉奴迟谤补₁, 9. 40. 笔奴谤惫补惫颈诲丑补岣�. ⁴⁴⁴ 罢补迟迟惫腻谤迟丑补-蝉奴迟谤补₁, 9.41. pare kevalina岣�.

[3]:

厂惫腻诲丑测腻测补 literally means self-study, but Jaina texts provide detailed descriptions of it. According to Sth膩n膩峁単a-蝉奴迟谤补, 5.220, it contains five types: 1. imparting training in scripture and its meaning (惫腻肠补苍腻), 2. inquiry about the word and meaning for clearing doubts (辫谤补肠肠丑补苍腻), 3. recapitulation of text learnt by rote (辫补谤颈惫补谤迟补苍腻), 4. contemplation of the text and the meaning (补苍耻辫谤别办峁Ｄ�), 5. Preaching the discipline through various disquisitions (诲丑补谤尘辞辫补诲别艣补).

[4]:

Sth膩n膩峁単a-蝉奴迟谤补, 4.67. Sth膩峁吥佱箙ga mentions a list of four, which supports the virtues meditation. The list is the same as 蝉惫腻诲丑测腻测补 but with exclusion of preaching, the discipline through various disquisitions (诲丑补谤尘辞辫补诲别艣补).

[5]:

Tattv膩nu艣膩sana, 82, 86. ye鈥檃tr膩hurna hi k膩lo鈥檡a峁� 诲丑测腻苍补sya dhy膩yat膩miti, te鈥檙hanmat膩nabhij帽atva峁� khy膩payanty膩tmana岣� svayam. carit膩ro na cetsyanti yath膩khy膩tsya samprati, tatkimanye yath膩艣aktim膩carantu tapasvina岣�.

[6]:

The dating of Kundakunda is not fixed, yet some scholars [more precise] dated him as late as (2^nd鈥�^th c. CE).

[7]:

Uttar膩dhyayana-蝉奴迟谤补, 30.34. learning one鈥檚 lesson (惫腻测补峁嚹�), questioning (辫耻肠肠丑补峁嚹�), repetition (辫补谤颈测补峁�峁�补峁嚹�), contemplation (补峁嘘辫别丑腻) and religious discourse (诲丑补尘尘补办补丑腻).

[8]:

惭奴濒腻肠腻谤补, G膩. 7.28.

[9]:

Fl眉gel (2015) presents an article which is interesting as an example of Digambara iconography of Jaina 鈥渕editation forest monks鈥�. It has no use in supporting his argument of the development of modern meditation in the Digambar tradition.

[10]:

Researcher interviewed Shugan Jain on 21 May 2015, who completed his PhD in Jainism. He follows the Digambara Jaina tradition and he was president of Digambara association.

[11]:

It is noted that in the medieval period, Jinasena鈥檚 惭补丑腻辫耻谤腻峁嘺 (8鈥�^th c. CE) emphasises the impossibility of bright or pure meditation. It states that the inability to observe all twelve austerities, described in the context of the sixteen dreams of Bharata as explained by 膧诲颈苍腻迟丑补, means that pure meditation is not possible now, given that it is itself a part of the twelve austerities themselves. (The list of these 12 austerities with their English translation has been explained in chapter 2 of the thesis.). The description of the third dream mentions: 鈥淎 horse which is incapable of carrying the weight of an elephant on his back and is therefore seen with a hunch back implies that monks in the fifth epoch (辫补帽肠补尘补-办腻濒补) will be not be able to observe all the twelve austerities completely鈥� (膧dipur膩峁嘺, 41.66). This is an attitude which emphasises that, during the medieval and modern periods, full observance of penance, including pure meditation, is not possible. Jinasena鈥檚 statement does not indicate any particular type of austerity. It is also difficult to determine exactly which of the twelve austerities is possible to observe partially but not completely.