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Cooking formed one of the important subjects of women's education (24. 7). Under this head we can treat Food and Drinks. The desire for food is one of the primary instincts of life, which manifests itself in hunger and thirst. What religion is for the spirit or soul, eating (solid food) and drinking (liquid food) are for hunger and thirst. The spirit resides in a physical body and it is necessary that the body is properly maintained. Growth and nourishment are the two aspects of maintenance and it is well referred to in the Paumacariya, that they depend on food.3 Thus the Paumacariya reveals that the people were well aware of the importance and the functions of food. The food in general is denoted by 'Ahara'4 and 'Bhoyana". It consisted of two kinds of articles viz. solid (khana) and liquid (Pana)6. Solid food is indicated by 'Bhatta' also (asanaiena bhattam laddham jaha paniyam ca tisienam (35. 42); jam bhunjanti kubhattam (20. 166). Sometimes 'Bhatta' indicated general food (nisibhattam 14. 138). The 1. Abhayadeva's commentary, 8. Su.6:1. 'Visavighatatantram'. 2. 'Asanaiena bhattam laddham jaha paniyam ca tisienam/ taha tujjha pasaenam sahava dhammo mae laddho'-35. 42. 3. 'Dhannena vaddhiyam ciya mahisikhirena posiyam deham-26. 41. 4. 'bhunjai paramaharam 53. 59; 'saunam aharakaranatthe 39. 69; pattaphalaharo 65. 40; ikkhurasacciya aharo 3. 111; aharamandava 81- 6, 5. 'bhoyanam bhuttam 77.33; 'bhoyanamandava' 69. 13 and 'nisibhoyana, 14.147. 6. bahukhanapanabhoyanasaesu' 14. 94; bahupanakhanabhoyana-26; aharakha- napanavihim 14. 139.

EDUCATION AND ARCHITECTURE 413 term 'Ahara' is used also in the sense of solid food (aharapana 3. 60, 110; 81. 13). Categories of food:-The two categories of food-solid and liquid, are further subdivided into four kinds (cauvihaharam 5.241: 14.125). They are termed as 'Asana, Pana, Khaima and Saima¹. (asana=rice etc. pana=gruel etc; Khaima=fruits etc: and saima=betel leaf etc). The commentary of Vasunandi Sramana on the Mulacara (1.20) mentions bhaktadi-rice etc; dugdhadi = milk etc; laddukadi-sweets etc; and ailadi cardamom etc. as the articles of four different categories respectively. The Ratnakarandasravakacara mentions 'anna' i. e. food of grains under Asana and 'lehyam' i. e. articles to be licked, under Saimam. The Mulacara at 9.54 calls 'lehyam' and 'svadyam' as the same but adds two more categories, viz. bhojam=bhojyam and pejjam =peyam. Bhojyam is explained as 'bhaksyam=i. e to be chewed while 'peyam' is said to be 'stokabhaktapanabahulam' i, e. a mixture of less solid and more liquid. In the Sanskrit literature" five categories are referred to. They are 'Bhaksya' (to be chewed and eaten i. e. flour preparations), 'Bhojya' (eaten without chewing, i. e. rice etc.) 'Lehya' (to be licked i. e. liquid condiments), 'Cusya' (to be sucked i. e. mango pickles etc). and 'Peya' (to be drunk i. e. milk, wine etc). The Paumacariya (24.53-55) mentions that 'Bhaksya' is 'Asvadya' i. e. for taste, 'Bhojya' meant for quenching the hunger (ksudha) and it consisted of eatables such as Yavagu and rice; Peyam included cool-drinks, water and wine, the other two categories were Lehya and Cusya. Cereals: The following cereals are mentioned in the Paumacariya The corns in general are denoted by dhanna=dhanya (3.158;5.163;26.41). Sali (99.29), Vrihi (4.76), Tandula" (33 16), and Kodrava (103.11) are the different varieties of rice. The reference to 'dhannam' at 41.4. (dhannam ca rannajayam) is to the wild corn growing in the forest. Java 4.76;11.25) is the barley, Canaka (gram), (Mudga-kidneybean) and Masa (horse-bean) are the pulses (33.16). Tila (sesame) and Sarsapa (mustard) are the oil seeds (33.16;97.10). Spices: There is a reference to the Lavanga (6. 41 ) and it must have been used as an ingredient of spices. 1. Sthananga, 4.295 with Abhayadevasuri's commentary; Bhagavati-sutra, 3.1.134. 2. Vide Jaina Acaryo ka Sasanabheda by J. K. Mukhtara p. 26. Sam, 1985, 3. India in Kalidasa, pp. 165-6. 4. See Sthananga, 3,155; Tiloyapannatti, 4,500, 5. Br-Samh, 77.2. 6. Ibid.

414 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Milk: The Milk (khira-ksira 3.46: 26.1 or dugdha 115.8) of cows and buffaloes is said to be very nutritive article of food. Payasa 115.8 rice gruel), Dadhi (115.8. curd). Sappi=Sarpis ( 14.85 clarified butter) and Ghaa (3.158 Ghrta = ghee) were the different preparations of milk. Sugar: The sugar and jaggery are called Sayara or Sakkara (Sarkara) and Gula (115.8,9) respectively. Modaka (115.9) and Ladduga (84.4) are the sweets. Manda (Manda 84.4) seems to be the rice-gruel or a sort of pastry or baked flour. Madhu (honey 3.158;14.85) is also referred to. The use of sugarcane-juice (Ikkhurasa= Iksurasa 3.111;41. 31) was very common. Fruits: The use of fruits was very common specially with those who lived in forest (33.10). At times leaves were also used for food (pattaphalaharini 63.45;65.40). Recluses depended on fruits and roots. following fruits have been (phalamulai kayaharo 8.155). The mentioned: mango (42.7), pomegranate (42.6), rose-apple (20.39), wood-apple (42.6), and grapes (53.79). Relishing rice-gruel prepared with the chips of orange, bread-fruit, terminatia catappa, bannana, datefruits and coconut (41.9) hase also been referred to. The betel leaves were chewed fondly by the people (46. 72; 70. 50; 80. 30), Kitchen, Cook and Food preparations:-Well-to-do and noble families engaged cooks for the management of their kitchen (Suvayara=Supakara 113. 7). Suvayaravai denotes that under him many assistants worked 22. 73). These food specialists prepared testeful, fragrant and relishing 77. 33). It is further said that the plates (miusurahisaukaliyam preparations were pleasant and agreeable to the five senses and the mind (pancanham irdiyatthanam ittam suham manojjam 77. 33). Thus it reveals that the food was made as pleasant as possible so that it provided wholesome satisfaction to the mind and body. Even the water used for drinking was saturated with fragrance (surabhigandhajala 115. 11). There are categorical references to various kinds of food preparations (nanaviha bhattam 77. 32; bhoyanam bahuviyappam 69.15). Thus the Paumacariya refers to 108 kinds of preparations of eatables (atthasayakhajjayajuttam 69.16), 64 varieties of dainties (causatthivanjanaviyappam 99.16) and 16 kinds of rice preparations (solasa oyana bheyam 69. 16). 1. See Tiloya pannatti, 4 347 also.

EDUCATION AND ARCHITECTURE 415 Utensils: Generally the utensils were called bhayanas=bhajanas (3. 37; 115. 13). Utensils of gold or set with jewels are mentioned (sovanniyabhayabhayanesu 20. 165; kancanarayanamayaim 102.20). The Paumacariya refers to the following specific utensils Bhingara (Bhrngara 69.14; 102. 120) was the small pitcher with a slender neck and a spout attached to it. It was water receptacle used at the time of dining. Thala (sthala 102; 120; 115. 10) was a big plate. A small plate or dish was called Thalliya (sthalika 20. 166). Pidhara is referred to in the sense of an earthen plate (Pithara 33. 85). Vattaa (102.120; 115. 10) was a round cup type vessel. Patti (Patri 115. 10) was a round and deep vessel. Then there was the bowl (Khappara = Karpara 20. 166). Vaddhamanaya (Vardhamanka 102. 120) was a saucer. Kaccolya (Kaccolaka) 102.120) was a kind of vessel round and deep. Kandu (118. 6) was the cauldron, a boiling vessel. The earthen pot was called Ghata (20.166) or Kumbha (69. 8). The Kalasa was the pitcher. Golden pitcher is also referred to (kanaya kalasa 115.11). In forests the purpose of utensils was served by leaves and bamboos. Their Dining: The royal families are referred to be maintaining separate dining halls (bhoyana-mandava 69.13, Bhoyanaghara 77.32 or Aharamandava 81. 6). It is often mentioned that the lunch was taken after taking a bath (69.11-13; 77.31-32; 34.13). The procedure of dining is worth noting. The Paumacariya reveals that as soon as Ravana entered the dining hall, he was provided with a seat. The warriors accompanying him also duly occupied their respective seats. seats consisted of low couches of cane shining with gold-work. were equipped with cushions and coverings of cloth sheet (attharayavaramasuraya¹-vettasanakancanamaesu 69.14). First of all they were provided with pitchers or jugs of water (bhingaravihi) and then they were served with food-articles of various kinds. Thus the procedure indicates that the people had developed good aesthetic sense. They Meat -The Paumacariya refers to taking of meat by lower classes and the Mlecchas. Meat-takers are referred to be attaining hell (26.36). This non-vegetarian diet is called Amisahara (3.15). The meat is called Mamsa (26.37; 22.74). It refers to 'Pisita' = Pisita, flesh also. It means the meat which is cut up or prepared. The life killed for obtaining the flesh consisted of animals, birds, and fishes. The taking of the flesh of bull (5.100) and sheep (41.55) is referred to. The Paumacariya further 1. Masuraka is explained as a linted i.e. thin piece of timber or stone that covers an opening and supports a weight above it (EHAP, 414). In the Paumacariya it may mean a support for holding dining plates.

416 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM mentions another work which mentioned that the elephants and buffaloes were used for the food of the Raksasas (2.111,116). In the same context it refers to the taking of marrow and blood of animals. The acquatic animals and birds were killed for food (26.40; 39.60). The slaughtering of Sumsumara-Sisumara is mentioned. It is further stated that in the Atidussamakala the reptiles would be also used for food (20.92). King Saudasa is mentioned to be taking human flesh. (22.75). The story of Saudasa reveals that slaughtering houses were in existence and on religious days they remained closed (22.74). Drinks -Eating meat and drinking wine are looked down in the Paumacariya (26.47). Wine is denoted by Sura (26.47), Madira (70.51) and Asava (11.43). The Paumacariya reveals that the liquors were distilled and saturated with various kinds of fragrant juices for making them pleasant to drink (102 122). Nine sources of distilled spirits referred to in the Carakasamhita are paddy, fruits, roots, pith, flowers, stalks, leaves, barks and sugar. The Carakasamhita calls the distilled spirits as Asavas². The Arthasastra mentions Asava as a variety of wine.³ The Paumacariya mentions the following varieties of liquors :Kadambari (102.122; 113.10), Prasanna (78.51; 102.122), Madhu, Sidhu (70.53, 34). The Kadambari was prepared out of the fruits of Kadamabara tree. The Prasanna's preparation is described in the Kautilya Arthas astra." The Madhu was prepared from the juice of grapes. The Sidhu was a product of the juice of sugarcane." The Nayadhammakahao refers to Sura, Maeya, Prasanna and Sidhu as different varieties (16. p. 179). In the works of Kalidasa³ we find mention of the Madhu, Madira, Kadambari, Sidhu, Madya and the Asava. The wine glass or drinking peg is referred to as Casaka (113.10) in the Paumacariya It refers to the Raksasa couples who took wine and enjoyed (70.51-36) the night before the final battle. Rama, in the state of his madness is said to have offered Kadambari to the dead body of Laksmana (113.10). 6 4 1. Caraka Samhita Sutrasthanam 6.48. Also See its Translation by Avinashacandra Kaviratna. 2. Ibid. 3 4. Kautilya, 2. 25, 19. R. L. Mitra, Indo. Aryan, Pt. I. p. 426 Vide J. C. Jain's Life in Ancient India, 5. 2. 25. 18. 6. Ibid. 2. 25; 14. 7. Mallinatha on Raghuvamsa, 16.52. 8. See India in Kalidasa, p. 196-197. p. 125,