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From very ancient times, the natural desire among people for male offspring is remarkable in the societies. It is believed from the Vedic times that the debt incurred by a man in his birth towards the gods, sages and the pit峁沬s, i.e. forefathers can be repaid, respectively, by performing sacrifices, by 产谤补丑尘补肠腻谤测补, i.e. studenthood and by giving birth to sons.^[1] In the 峁欢惫别诲补, it is stated that a worthy son brings fulfillment to the life of his father by the continuance of the lineage and offering of oblations to the dead.^[2] Thus, the procreation of a son is believed to have served, the purpose of releasing the person from the debt, owed to the ancestors, and securing immortality or heaven. Owing to these spiritual benefits deemed to be attached with the birth of a son, the 厂尘峁泃颈蝉 also emphasise and strongly recommend begetting sons. Manu states the necessity of a son by explaining the etymology of the term putra, used to denote a son, who saves (迟谤腻测补迟别) the father from the hell, called put, and therefore he is known as putra.^[3]

The influence of the Vedic injunctions, declaring the benefits of sons is also emphasised by 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补, who states that by sons, grandsons and great-grandsons, an unending family is acquired and the celestial region is attained hereafter.^[4] Therefore, due to the longing for male issue, various kinds of sons were accepted in the society in ancient time.

The 痴测补惫补丑腻谤腻诲丑测腻测补 enumerates twelve kinds of sons, which are described hereinafter.^[5]

(i) Aurasa:

The Aurasa or the legitimate son of the body is one who is born of a lawfully wedded wife. A legally wedded wife is defined by the 惭颈迟腻办峁�a谤腻 to be a woman of equal 惫补谤峁嘺 espoused in lawful wedlock. The son begotten upon her is considered true and legitimate and is chief in rank.^[6]

(ii) 笔耻迟谤颈办腻蝉耻迟补:

The son of an appointed daughter is called 笔耻迟谤颈办腻蝉耻迟补, who is equal to the Aurasa son.

(iii) 碍峁�e迟谤补箩补:

The 碍峁�e迟谤补箩补 is one who is begotten on a wife by sagotra relation of her husband or near kinsman.

(iv) 骋奴岣峢补箩补:

The son secretly born of a married woman in her husband鈥檚 house is considered a 骋奴岣峢补箩补 son, meaning son of a concealed birth. According to the 惭颈迟腻办峁�a谤腻, in case of such kind of son even if it is not ascertained who the father is, but he must belong to the same 惫补谤峁嘺.^[7]

(v) 碍腻苍墨苍补:

碍腻苍墨苍补 i.e. a maiden son is one who is born of an unmarried daughter in her father鈥檚 house. That son is considered the son of the maternal grandfather if she remains unmarried and stays at her father鈥檚 house. After her marriage, the son belongs to her husband.^[8]

(vi) Paunarbhava:

Paunarbhava or the son of a remarried woman is he who is born of a twice-married woman, whose marriage has or has not been consummated.

(vii) Dattaka:

That son is called Dattaka, who is given by mother or father. However, mother may give in adoption under her husband鈥檚 direction, in the absence of her husband on a journey or when husband is dead. Apart from mother, he may be given by father or by both to a person of same caste. In such situation, the son is considered the Dattaka or adopted son of the person, who receives him as a gift from his natural father or mother.^[9]

(viii) 碍谤墨迟补 :

If a son is sold by both mother and father, or by either of them, then the son is called 碍谤墨迟补 or a son bought. The 惭颈迟腻办峁�a谤腻 states that he should be sold not being the eldest or only son, in the time of distress and to him, belonging to the same class.^[10]

(ix) 碍峁泃谤颈尘补:

碍峁泃谤颈尘补 is a son, whom a man himself adopts or makes his son. It is explained that the son is adopted by the man himself, who being desirous of a male issue, entices by the show of money and land, either an orphan, or if parents are living, with their consent only.^[11]

(x) 顿补迟迟腻迟尘腻:

If a child gives or presents himself as son to another man being bereft of father and mother or abandoned by them then he is called 顿补迟迟腻迟尘腻, or son self-given.

(xi) 厂补丑辞岣峢补箩补:

厂补丑辞岣峢补箩补, i.e. the son of a pregnant bride is one who being in the womb of his mother at the time of her marriage is accepted along with the bride. He is considered to be the son of his mother鈥檚 husband.^[12]

(xii) Apaviddha:

The son who is taken or adopted by a person, after having been deserted by his parents, is called Apaviddha or deserted son.

驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 recognizes the religious right to offer funeral cake and the right to inheritance to these twelve kinds of son in order, i.e. in absence of the preceding one, each next in order is entitled to those rights. In this connection, 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 stresses on the caste that should be same as with the father.^[13]

The different kinds of sons are also mentioned by the 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈^[14] and the 狈腻谤补诲补蝉尘峁泃颈.^[15] The order in which the different sons are placed, and some of the names in the 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈 and the 狈腻谤补诲补蝉尘峁泃颈 vary with that of the 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i, are shown below in the following table.

Sl No	驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i	惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈	狈腻谤补诲补蝉尘峁泃颈
1	Aurasa	Aurasa	Aurasa
2	笔耻迟谤颈办腻蝉耻迟补	碍峁�e迟谤补箩补	碍峁�e迟谤补箩补
3	碍峁�e迟谤补箩补	Datta	笔耻迟谤颈办腻辫耻迟谤补
4	骋奴岣峢补箩补	碍峁泃谤颈尘补	碍腻苍墨苍补
5	碍腻苍墨苍补	骋奴岣峢辞迟辫补苍苍补	厂补丑辞岣峢补
6	Paunarbhava suta	Apaviddha	骋奴岣峢辞迟辫补苍苍补
7	Dattaka	碍腻苍墨苍补	Paunarbhava
8	碍谤墨迟补	厂补丑辞岣峢补	Apaviddha
9	碍峁泃谤颈尘补	碍谤墨迟补	Labdha
10	顿补迟迟腻迟尘腻	Paunarbhava	碍谤墨迟补
11	厂补丑辞岣峢补箩补	厂惫补测补峁僤补迟迟补	碍峁泃补办补
12	Apaviddha	艢补耻诲谤补	Svayamupagata

The number of sons and the respective status attached to them in different 厂尘峁泃颈蝉 reflect the importance of the sons and thought of the contemporary society of the Sm峁泃ik膩ras, who might have placed them considering the social and family set-up. Manu and 狈腻谤补诲补 have divided the sons into two classes. The first six sons placed in their respective place are considered 产补苍诲丑耻诲腻测补诲补 and a产补苍诲丑耻诲腻测补诲补, literally those succeeding to the bandhus and those not succeeding to the bandhus. It is important to be noted that 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 has not made these two classifications.

It can be noticed that among the twelve kinds of sons found in the 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i, five viz., Dattaka, 碍谤墨迟补, 碍峁泃谤颈尘补, Apaviddha and 顿补迟迟腻迟尘腻 are generally the adopted sons of the father, which are named after the modes of circumstances of adoption. Nowadays also, adoption is found extraordinarily in vogue. During the time of the 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i it appears to be an established mode or means to get fatherhood. The main distinction seems to be that in ancient times either only sons have been preferred for adoptions or only sons may be adopted. There is no mention about the adoptions of daughters in the 痴测补惫补丑腻谤腻诲丑测腻测补 of the 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i.

According to Julius Jolly, most of the twelve kinds of sons are not having any blood relation with the father, some of them are begotten by the illicit connection of the mother, and this is the most striKing feature of Indian family law. Moreover, he thinks the cause of such importance attached to male issue is not only religious as found in the 厂尘峁泃颈蝉, but also possibly for the economic purpose to get as many as possible workers for the family.^[16] Kane holds that the 厂尘峁泃颈蝉 do not consider all these sons to be equally competent to confer spiritual benefit and a man is not endowed with all or most of them at one and the same time. For instance, the nature of 辫耻迟谤颈办腻辫耻迟谤补, dattaka, k峁�etraja indicate that one can have such sons in absence of son, grandson, etc., of his own. Therefore, it appears to him that the observation made by Julius Jolly is based on erroneous assumptions.^[17]

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

j膩yam膩no vai br膩hma峁嘺stribhir峁涐箛v膩 j膩yate brahmacarye峁嘺 峁涐梗ibhyo yaj帽ena devebhya岣� prajay膩 pit峁沚hya e峁�a v膩 an峁涐箛o ya岣� putr墨 yajv膩 brahmac膩riv膩s墨/ Taittir墨yasa峁僪it膩, 6.3.10.5

[2]:

mo 峁�u 诲别惫腻 ada岣� svarava p膩di divaspari/ m膩 somyasya 艣a峁僢huva岣� 艣奴ne 产丑奴尘补 办补诲腻 cana 惫颈迟迟颈峁� me asya 谤辞诲补蝉墨// RV., 1.105.3

[3]:

punn膩mno narak膩dyasm膩ttr膩yati pitara峁� 蝉耻迟补岣�// tasm膩tputra iti prokta岣� svayameva svaya峁僢huv膩// 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈, 9.138

[4]:

濒辞办腻苍补苍迟测补峁� 诲颈惫补岣� 辫谤腻辫迟颈岣� putrapautraprapautrakai岣�/ 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i, 1.78

[5]:

auraso 诲丑补谤尘补辫补迟苍墨jastatsama岣� putrik膩蝉耻迟补岣�/ 办峁�e迟谤补箩补岣� k峁�etraj膩stu sagotre峁噀tare峁嘺 v膩// g峁沨e pracchanna utpanno g奴岣峢ajastu 蝉耻迟补岣� sm峁泃a岣�/ k膩n墨峁嘺岣� kanyak膩j膩to m膩t膩mahasuto 尘补迟补岣�// ak峁�at膩y膩峁� k峁�at膩y膩峁� v膩 箩腻迟补岣� 辫补耻苍补谤产丑补惫补岣� 蝉耻迟补岣�/ dady膩nm膩t膩 辫颈迟腻 v膩 ya峁� sa putro dattako bhavet// kr墨ta艣ca t膩bhy膩峁� 惫颈办谤墨迟补岣� 办峁泃谤颈尘补岣� sy膩tsvaya峁僰峁泃a岣�/ dattatm膩 tu svaya峁僤atto garbhe vinna岣� 蝉补丑辞岣峢补箩补岣�// Ibid., 2.128-132

[6]:

uraso jata 补耻谤补蝉补岣� 辫耻迟谤补岣� saca 诲丑补谤尘补辫补迟苍墨ya岣� 蝉补惫补谤峁嚹� 诲丑补谤尘补惫颈惫腻丑辞岣峢腻 诲丑补谤尘补辫补迟苍墨 迟补蝉测腻峁� 箩腻迟补 补耻谤补蝉补岣� putro 尘耻办丑测补岣�/ 惭颈迟腻办峁�a谤腻, Ibid.

[7]:

鈥�h墨n膩dhikaj膩t墨yapuru峁�ajatvaoarih膩re峁嘺 puru峁�avi艣edhajatvani艣cay膩bh膩ve鈥檖i sa惫补谤峁嘺jatvani艣caye sati boddhavya岣�/ Ibid.

[8]:

yadyan奴岣峢膩 s膩 bhavettath膩 pit峁沢峁沨aeva sa峁僺thit膩/ atho岣峢膩 迟补诲腻 vo岣峢ureva 辫耻迟谤补岣�/ Ibid.

[9]:

尘腻迟谤腻 bhartranuj帽ay膩 pro峁�ite prete v膩 bhartari pitr膩 vobh膩bhy膩峁� v膩 蝉补惫补谤峁嚹亂a yasmai d墨yate sa tasya 诲补迟迟补办补岣� 辫耻迟谤补岣�/ Ibid.

[10]:

鈥�t补迟丑补颈办补峁� 辫耻迟谤补峁� 箩测别峁ａ弓丑补峁� ca varjayitv膩 膩padi sa惫补谤峁嘺 ityeva/ Ibid.

[11]:

k峁泃vimastu 辫耻迟谤补岣� svaya峁� putr膩rthina dhanak峁�et峁沘pradar艣an膩di pralobhenaiva putr墨k峁泃o m膩t膩pit峁泇ih墨na岣�/ tatsadbh膩ve tatparatantratv膩t/ Ibid.

[12]:

saho岣峢ajastu garbhe sthito garbhi峁噛膩峁� pari峁嚹玹膩y膩峁� ya岣� pari峁嚹玹a岣� sa 惫辞岣峢耻岣� 辫耻迟谤补岣�/ Ibid.

[13]:

驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i, 2.132-133

[14]:

惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈, 9.159-160

[15]:

狈腻谤补诲补蝉尘峁泃颈, 4.13.45-46

[16]:

Jolly, J., Hindu Law and Custom, page1.78

[17]:

Kane, P.V. Op.cit., Volume 3, page648