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229 Trade Inland Trade Trade was carried on by sea as well as by land. Both these trades were on an extensive scale. We have numerous references to the various trade routes that passed through different parts of India and through which the traffic by different stages was carried out. Tamralipti on the extreme east coast in Bengal which i is often mentioned in the travel stores from the Kathasaritsagara was undoubtly a great port and trading centre from where regular commercial traffic with Ceylon on the one side 184 and Indonesia and Indochina on the other was carried out. Taking it as a centre many routes can be traced to different parts of India and outside. Most of the trading centres that i have often been mentioned in the various stores of merchants and traders from the Kathasaritsagara are in the cis-Vindhaya territory, i.e. the Gangetic plain. Thus Alaka, Ardhaya, Pataliputra, Mathura, Vidensha, Sravasti, Kanyakubja, Taxila, Ahichchatra, Pundravardhana, Kasi, Champa, Ujjayini, Vallabhai, BharuKachaha, Vitankapura, Padmapura, Kaushambi, Pushkalavati 185 and many other centres of this region are often mentioned. 184. Nirnaya Sagar 12.28.7, 7.2.37, 38, 3.4.291, 12.14.3, 12.9.51, 11.1.1 to 115. 185. Ibid. 16.2.164, 12.7.11, 14.4.20, 41.1.58, 3.5.16, 10.5.301, 3.1.85, 7.3.99, 6.8,68, 6.7.106, 4.1.86, 10.5.219, 12.1.33, 6.1.10, 6.2.8, 6.2.119, 12.5.23 12.18,27, 5.1.71, 3.5.16, 12.2.47, 12.3.42,17.1.17, 12.20.3, 4.3.31, 12.19.33, 3.1.63, 12.34.264, 7.3.1 3.6.168, 8.1.54, 13.1.63, 12.25.10,12.35.7,6.1.135, 10.1.14, 6.3.193,4.7.60,5.3.136,5.2.35, 12.15.25 6.4.42, 6.1.109, 2.4.50, 10.1.16, 7.3.33, 14.2.73, 6.2.113, 12.28.7, 3.4.291.

230 In the list of trading centres in the tranceVindhaya terriotry we may include Kundinapura, Supratisthata, Pratisthana, Kanchi or Kanchianapuram, Chinchani and 186 other centres. Trade Routes F Many trade routes can be traced from the different stories of merchants and traders wherein they are mentioned to have travelled from one part of the country to another for trade. Tamralipti on the east coast and Bharukach cha on the west, can be considered as the two important ports which were connected with the inland trading centres by various routes. From Tamralipli a route passed through 2 211 Champa to Pataliputra and Vaishali. From Pataliputra it went further to Kasi and in the northern direction went up to Ayodhaya and further to Sravasti. Along the Yamuna river it further went to Kanyakubja and Mathura. Another route connected Ujjayini with Mathura, for a certain prince prince is said to have made a swift journey along this 187 route sitting on a horse-back. Ujjayini was furhter 7 th connected with Vallabhi and Bharukachcha. Nishayadatta is 188 said to have travelled from Ujjayini to Pushkalavali. 鉁� 186. Nirnaya Sagar 14.4.20, 10.1.73, 1.6.34,24, 9.1.117, 10.2.2, 12.8.22, 7.9.70, 10.1.73. 187. Ibid. 10.2.82, 83, 89. 188. Ibid. 7.3.33 onwards

231 Vallabhi, an important trading centre of Saurastra was also connected with Kasi and Pataliputra on one side and with Mathura and Taxila on the west. Thus we find that a rich merchant named Devasena went from Pataliputra to Vallabhi 189 labhi and is mentioned to have sold gold in its market. Vidusaka is said to have gone from Ujjayini to Tamratipli 180 via Pundravardhana. Guhasena travelled from Pushkalavati 191 to Ahich chatra to get himself married. . He probably travelled along the trade route that connected these two Cities, touching Takshashila on his way. We have again Nidhidatta of Pundravardhan going to Suvarnadvipa and coming back through Anga country touching Champa on way. Sundersena travelled from Alaka to Tamralipti and went to Hamsadvipa in a ship. 123 192 A mendicant is said to have gone from Kashmir to Pataliputra crossing forests, rivers and mountains and 194 again went back. According to Warmington a trade route connected Taxila in Gandhara country with central India probably 189. Nirnaya Sagar 6.3.75, 103. 190. Ibid. 3.4.253, 254, 291. 191. Ibid. 6.2.119. 192. Ibid. 12.19.37-40. 193. Ibid. 12-34-46 onwards. 194. Ibid. 10.106, 7 and 13.

232 passing through the desert and came to Mathura and further 195 touched Ayodhaya. Ayodhara . \Pratisthana in the Dakshinapatha was connected by a trade route with North-India which passed through the Vindhaya mountains. Thus we find that Dharma a feudallord travelled 196 from Deccan to Malva. Sangramadatta is mentioned to have 197 carried gold on a camel back from Pratisthana to Pataliputra. A certain Brahmin named Nagaraswami is said to have travelled from Kundinapura, capital of Vidarbha, to Pataliputra to 198 acquire learning. Kanchipuram or Kanchi in the south appears to be another important trading centre. Its markets were flooded with commodities that used to come from other parts of India, 199 Indonesia and the west. A certain merchant named Arthalobha from this city is mentioned to be a whole-sale dealer in 200 elephant, horses, jewels and garments, (chinasukas). He brought these articles from China. Another merchant named Ishvaravarman went from Kanchanapuram to Svarnadvipa and 201 returned with great wealth. 195. Warmington, Commerce and Trade between Roman Empire and India, p.23. 1196. Nirnaya Sagar 12.31.10. 197. Ibid. 7.4.105. 198. Ibid. 14.4.20-21. 199. Ibid. 10.1.173. 200. Ibid. 7.9.72,89. 201. Ibid. 10.1.164, 173.

233 Transport (Roads, means of ....) But we For trade and commerce there should be roads and means of transport. We have references to roads. do not know whether they were well constructed or not. 202 But it appears The high-ways (rajyamargas) are mentioned. that the condition of these roads was not satisfactory. 203 They lay through forests, deserts, difficult terrains and along the rivers. At one place it is mentioned that the yoke of a bullock-cart was broken when it was on its way to Mathura by a path which had become muddy by a torrent 204 flowing into it. Further there were robbers, bandits and wild beasts to obstruct the journey. The journey of a caravan through a desert or a forest country is a typical feature of our stories.) With merchants and their servants, caravans (sarthas) struggled through these paths day and night towards their destinations. Heavy duties were levelled on them when they 206 passed from one kingdom to another. On way they were at times attacked by band of robbers. The Bhilla or the Savara 202. Nirnaya Sagar 10.4.13, 10.5.326. 203. Ibid. 109.5, 10.7.9, 12.3.23,24, 10.10.6,7,73, 12.5.180, 12.33.6,8. 204. Ibid. 10.4.12. 205. Ibid. 10.6.193,194, 9.4.123, 10,8.21. 206. Ibid. 6.3.105.

234 tribes of the Vindhaya territory are often mentioned to Vindyaya cartavans have attacked these carravans and travellers who at times 207 accompanied them. These men had swords, arrows and bows and used to lay in wait for the tradesmen. It is interesting to note that at times even Brahmins are seen doing this business. Thus we find a Brahmin named Vasumati with his son described as the head of a gang of robbers that 208 used to plunder caravans. But there were forest people al so who protected and led these caravans through the dangerous places after collecting taxes (shulkam). It is said that a King named Vasudatta used to collect taxes for defending a forest and for protecting the caravans and traders 209 who used to pass through it from bandits. At times these 210 caravans had their own armies to protect them. The head of the caravan (Sarthavaha) travelled probably sitting on 211 a horse and carried his valuables with him. Since heavy duties (bahu sulka) were levied on these caravans when they passed through the regular trade-routes, at times, they used 212 these forest routes (ataviptathas) to save money. (atavipta thas) 207. Nirnaya Sagar 4.1.71, 12.35.58. 208. Ibid. 12.6.206-209. 209. Ibid. 6.3.135. 210. Ibid. 6.3.105. 211. Ibid. 10.8.28-30. 212. Ibid. 6.3.105.

235 71 Means of Transport 214 Camel was certainly the Chief and main beast of 213 transport. But carts (shakatas) and wagons are also mentioned. A trader of Kanyakubja used a buffalo, put a load upon it 215 The articles were and went to a village near the Ganges. kept in jars or leather trunks (charma petaras) on the 216 camels. From the various references it appears that the caravan traffic along these trade-routes was very heavy. These big trade-routes through rivers, jungles, deserts crossed the country in all the directions and carried on exchange of goods (bhandam) between the different parts of India. Town Market Every village or Town had its resident traders. Goods were brought to them through the caravan merchants and 217 were exchanged with local products. The transaction was, at times, made through agents. We have references to them 218 in the Kathasaritsagara This trade was probably conducted outside the 213. Nirnaya Sagar 7.4.105, 10.6.194, 9.4.123, 6.3.105. 214. Ibid. 10.4.12, 10.5.326. 215. Ibid. 12.1.48. Boats, mules horses, elephants, bulls and oxen were used as means of transport during the Gupta Age, Salatore, R. N. op. cit., p.149. 216. Ibid. 10.6.195, 10.5.3,4, 12.19.52. 217. Ibid. 9.2.122-123, 10.1.73, 6.3.105, 4.1.71, 7.4.105. 218. Ibid. 5.3.133.

9 7 236 city at cross-roads near the gates. Cross-roads sheaded with trees outside the city of Supratisthitha area men- 21.9 tioned. Again it is mentioned that a merchant named Ishavaravarman, who was the head of his caravan, waited 220 outside the city of Kauchipuram. Within the town there were special streets (vipanimargas) where these articles were bought and sold. Various kinds of articles were displayed for sale or were stored in shops (apanas) on these streets. At times 222 they are mentioned as Rathayanukha. We have references to streets and markets, merchants and grocers (vanijas) of Supratesthitha, Ujjayini, Pataliputra, Kanchinagara, Vitankapura, Pratisthana, Tamrappti, Alaka, Mathura, Ayodhaya, Kaushambi, Kanyakubja, Pundravardhana and many 223 other cities. Articles of Trade What were the articles that were sold, stored or Innumerable are our references exchanged in these markets. to these articles in the Kathasaritsagara It mentions the cotton, itions 219. Nirnaya Sagar 1.6.41. 220. Ibid. 10.1.73. dur 221. Ibid. 5.3.136, 7.9.10, 16.2.164, Ch.see SeletoreR.N. op.cit., p.149 and also Puri R.N. India ing the times of Patanjali,p. 126-129. 222. Ibid. 7.9.10. 223. Ibid. 1.6.34, 6.3.75, 7.9.10, 5.3.136, 10.4.12, 16.2.164, 5.3.24, 3.6.150, 5.3.136, 18.2.156,170.

1 235 237 sold after it was cleaned, gold after it was purified, wheet flour, food, wood, farments, scented unguents, ornaments, grams, charcoal, roats, aloes, cakes, beaf, clothes, drinks, wheet, oils, sesame, rice, barley, firewood, pet-birds, elephants, horses, camels, flesh of deer and other animals, deer-skins, elephant, tusks, musk, pearls, jewels, camphor, silver, copper, iron and brass pots, garlands, semi-precious stones, and articles carved out of them, house-hold articles, sweets, wines, sandlewood, pottery of various shapes, toys, medicines, milk and its products, sugar, spices and many other daily 224 necessities. These articles were carried to the market E 2 225 place by the caravans in jars or in lether-trunks. It is 226 mentioned that in the market at Ujjayini cotton, gold, garments, food, wheet-flour and scented-unguents were sold. Shops and the marketing centre of that city are mentioned. At the cross-roads outside the city of Supratisthita 227 grams (chanakas) and fire-wood was sold. Shops of rich Again Sukhadhana merchants were there on the market road. of Kauchi was a dealer in elephants, horses, pairs of 224. Nirnaya Sagar 10.5.28,29, 18.2.74, 2.4.150, 7.9.75,89, 1.6.46, 10.1.26, 10.5.4-6, 3.6.168, 5.3.138, 12.7.232,10.6.204, 2.4.50, 10.6.195, 18.2.74, 10.5.189, 7.5.116, 12.7.76, 9.6.185,181, 12.15.6, 12.35.42, 6.3.183, 12.17.48, 3.6.150, 12.83.24, 10.6.204, 7.9.214, 215, 12.11.17, 5.1.134, 6.1.9. 2.5.83. 225. Ibid.10.6.195, 18.2.74. 226. Ibid. 2.4.150 and also 12-11-17. 227. Ibid. 1.6.40,43.

238 excellent garments made in China and jewels. His wife sat in the shop and attracted many customers by her 228 beauty and sweet words and thus made huge profits. Subhadatta, a man from Pataliputra every day carried a load of wood from the forest and sold it and maintained 229 his family. Gold ornaments and jewels were also sold by 330 people in the market. Roots (mulakam) were brought from 231 Malva and were sold in the market of Kanyakubja. The Bhilla chiefs of the Vindhya mountains stored big quantities of musk, pearls, deer skins and elephant-tusks and probably treaded in these articles and also exchanged them 232 233 Oil was sold in the shops. Wine with daily necessities. 234 h was also sold. Beef and weat was sold on the street by 235 butchers. Timberfful and chareoat was brought from jungle 236 and sold in the market. Cakes were sold in the market 237 at Ujjayini. Journey provions (patheyam) were also ey provions available in the market. Merchants assembled in these market places and talked about their skill in making 239 money 228. Nirnaya Sagar 7.9.70-72,75 and also 12.11.17, 2.5.150. 229. Ibid. 10.1.26. 230. Ibid. 10.9.108-111. 2.4.150 231. Ibid. 3.6.165,168. 232. Ibid. 12.35.42, 4.2.75. 233. Ibid. 10.5.189. 234. Ibid. 12.35.113. 235. Ibid. 5.3.108, 10.5.40,43. 236. Ibid. 18.4.55, 10.5.5. 7.5.176. 237. Ibid. 10.6.204. 238. Ibid. 10.5.304, 306. 239. Ibid. 1.6.27.

239 People from the surrounding villages came to these markets and purchased their daily necessities. They sold gold arnaments and jewels and bought garments, food and 240 Other Shops and other things. Apart from the shops which dealt in the above articles, there appear to be shops of goldsmits, money lenders, garment-makers, jewellers, fishermen, garland 241 makers, commission agents etc. in the market. Rich merchants in big cities had palaces or palatial buildings of their own in these cities wherein these commodities 242 243 were probably stored. and earned their bread. Coolies worked in these markets Merchant Guilds References to merchant guilds from Kathasaritsagara are very few and therefore do not throw any light on their character, composition or organization. They were called 'Sranis' They have already been discussed on page 227 228. 240. Nirnaya Sagar 2.4.150. 241. Ibid. 5.2.174, 7.9.72, 18.4.223, 3.5.99, 3.2.31, 10.6.227. 242. Ibid. 12.8.119, 18.4.145, 12.20.5-6, 12.28.18, 3.3.72, 714.19-29, 7.9.8-9, 17.4.80,81,132. 243. Ibid. 1.7.8,13,15