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227 Organization of Guilds Various trade associations are mentioned in ancient India. A high state of co-operative activity and commercial or trading organization is witnessed during the period under our study. Economic groupings are known 175 since remote times. But we are unable to gather any knowledge of the crafts guilds nor of their character, constitution or organization from the various stories from the Kathasaritsagara aniza | Withi Within the towns and cities certain streets were fixed for the tradesmen and artisans. They are mentioned 176 as Vipanimargas in many a stories from Kathasaritsagara Some trades and crafts were followed outside the towns or cities. At the cross-roads outside the city of Supratisthita 177 ] grams and fire-wood was sold. \ Ishvaravarman, who was the head of a caravan is also said to have waited, outside 178 the city of Kanchipuram. The potter's craft and the cane and bamboo craft seem to be outside the city. The hunters probably lived on the outskirts of the jungles from where they collected furs, skins, ivory, musk and the like. 175. Mukerjee R.K., Local Government is Ancient India, see also Vedic Index I, p.140, 471 ft., also see Puri B.N. India under the Kushanas, p.106. 176. Nirnaya Sagar 5.3.136, 16.2.164. 177. Ibid. 1.6.34-41. 178. Ibid. 10.1.73.

228 We have practically no reference to the merchants guilds in the Kathasaritsagara, except at one place. These guilds were headed by the Settis who enjoyed a very high and respectable position in the society and court. Ratnadatta was such a great merchant of the city of Ayodhaya and a head of the merchant community (vaniknayaka). They were wealthy, lived in palatial buildings and had a band of servants in their service. 179 We at times read of carvana (sarthas) consisting of many camels and carts laid with goods travelling across the country. They were guided by the Caravan leader. (Sarthawaha). Their travel was through jungles, deserts, difficult terrains and along the rivers and there was always the danger of the attack by the organized bands of robbers. These caraven leaders at times had their own 181 armies for the protection of the caravans. One such head 1 182 named Ishvaravarman is mentioned. We have also references to agents (Vyavaharing(s) 183 appointed by these traders at various commercial centres. 179. Nirnaya Sagar 12.21.5. 180. Ibid. 10.4.12, 4.1.71, 12.35.58, 6.3.135, 10.10.6, 7.73. 181. Ibid. 6.3.105. 182. Ibid.10.1.73. 183. Ibid. 5.3.133.