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Sea-Borne Trade 240 The extent and direction of Indian maritime trade are known from the various stories of merchants going to distant islands and lands that have often been referred to in the Kathasaritsagara We have unmerous references to the brisk trade that was carried on between India and the neighbouring countries on the West and the East. (Rich merchants carried this trade in big as well as small ships and vessels. Rich merchants probably owned light (laghu) as well as big (mahat) ships. They are called 246 245 244 Yanapatras, Pravahana or Vahana.) They were made of wooden planks. These ships were loaded with merchandise and used to sail along the sea-coast from one island to another 247 along with the wind. Big vessels used to go deep into 248 Their radar is often mentioned. 249 the seas. When they touched a port they used to anchor away from the port. Flags used to flutter over them. There were sitting 250 arrangements on them The captain of the ship was called Karnadhara. He used to direct the ship. Under his instructions the other 251 crew worked. A big crew was employed on them. 252 At times the king also piloted his ship. samudraparsana gatika a 244. Nirnaya Sagar 3.4.293,298, 12.34.264,265, 12.19.49,2.5.180. 245. Ibid. 5.3.133, 5.2.39, 12.34.172, 11.1.41,101, 12.34.112,114, 10.1.53, 5.2.45, 5.3.7. 18.1.104. 246. Ibid. 9.1.175, 5.3.122. 247. Ibid. 5.3.12, 11.1.41. 248. Ibid. 12.34.264, 18.4.111. 249. Ibid. 12.34.174. 250. Ibid. 12.34.181. 251. Ibid. 12.34.268, 12.19,49, 3.4.300, During the Kushana Period this pilot was called as Niyayamaka, Puri B.N. op.cit., p.108. 252. Ibid. 5.3.8. $

The Journey - 241 Considerable precaution was taken while arranging overseas journey. These ships had sufficient supply of food, water (annampupurnam), ropes (rajjus), heavy stones, chains (srinkhatas) and many other things for the use during the journey and in case of emergency. Generally these ships were not overloaded. times, were stuck in the middle of the ocean. 253 They, at Then the crew would dive deep into the sea fastened to a rope and remove the obstacle. For such a daring deed Vidushaka was once offered half his wealth and daughter by a rich 254 merchant named Swapnadatta. Shipwrecks We have numerous stories of ship-wrecks throughout 255 the Kathasaritsagara There were serious dangers on the seas. Heavy storms, whirlpools, torrential rains hampered and made the journey dangerous. In times of emergency offerings were made to the sea. At times jewels were also offered. In case of a heavy storm big stones were fastened by chains and were flunged on all sides of the ship and the sail let loose. It is said that when the ship, in which Hiranyagupta a rich merchant, was travelling towards Suvarnabhumi, 253. Nirnaya Sagar 12.34.172,180. 254. Ibid. 3.4.297-307. 255. Ibid. 9.6.143-144, 12.34.140-143, 7.2.79, 9.2.318, 324, 5.2.40, 9.4.100, 11.1.66,105, 9.6.140. 256. Ibid. 12.34.172-179.

242 started sinking, the crew raised a cry of lamentation. Everybody on ship tried to save his life. Sagaravira tied together some planks, kept Anangperabha his beloved, on it, and after paddling and swimming reached the shore. Hiranyagupta also tied his clock (uttariya) round his lions, threw himself into the sea and swiming reached 257 another merchant-ship. Again we have a case of a merchant named Samudradatta who was caught in a storm and after his ship-wreck remained floating in the sea for three days on a plank and was ultimately picked up by his father 258 who was returning home after a distant journey. The Travellers Merchants with their servants, men and women 259 also travelled in these vessels. Kings and at times their ambassadors travelled in these big ships with their retinue and are said to have reached distant countries. It is said that King Prithvirupa of Pratisthana crossed the sea in eight ships and after eight-days voyage reached 260 the island of Muktipura. Satvasila, the dependent of King 257. Nirnaya Sagar 9.2.322-330. 258. Ibid. 5.3.122-124. 259. Ibid. 7.2.79-84, 9.2.37,38. 260. Ibid. 9.1.174.

243 Chandasena of Tamralipti, also, got into a ship with 261 Brahmanas and went to Smihaladvipa. At another place it is mentioned that prince Sundersena, his minister and King Mahendraditya of Kanchip am went on a big (mahat) ship well supplied with food and water, to 265 Hamsadvipa. The ambassador Dhavalasena of Simhaladripa is 263 mentioned to have come to India. It is not always that merchants and enterprisers, princes and kings, servants and attendants took long and distant journies but princesses and ladies and merchants from the eastern as well as the western countries and islands also visited India. 264 Thus we find that a princess of Katha dvipa, and princess MandarKathadv awati of Hamsadvipa came to India. A daring lady named Devasmita is said to have gone to Katahadvipa after 7 embarking at Tamralipti. A merchant's daughter is said to have gone from Lampa in a ship to Lanka with her attendants. Samudra sura is said to have come to India and 268 travelled with a caravan in the interior. Thus there appears to be a heavy to and fro traffic between India and the adjecent countries in the east and west. 261. Nirnaya Sagar 12.14.33. 262. Ibid. 12.34.178,179. 263. Ibid. 18.1.103-104. 264. Ibid. 18.4.109. 265. Ibid. 12.34.140-143. 266. Ibid. 2.5.180. 267. Ibid. 10.1.53. 268. Ibid. 9.4.122-123.

244 Ship Building From the various stories of merchants going abroad for trade it appears that small as well as big ships meant for distant voyages were built in India in those days. Tamralipti, a port on the extreme east coast which is often mentioned may had a ship-yard, but we cannot be sure about it. These ships were built of 269 wooden planks. We do not know the location of Padmopura but its king Udaracharita is mentioned to have supplied 270 probably after building, King Prithvirupa of Pratisthana many ships to enable him to cross the sea. These ships were dependent on wind for their onward journey. Thus it is mentioned that Shaktideva went to the island of 271 Ratnakuta in a wind sailing ship The Knowledge about treacherous Sea The sea-going merchants had a good knowledge of the sea. They not only sailed from one island to another for trade and commerce but it is interesting to know that they also studied the great and treacherous ocean 272 currents, the high and low tide (abdivelayam), the 273 direction of the wind, whirlpools and sub-marine volcano, 269. Nirnaya Sagar 9.2.322-330. 270. Ibid. 9.1.175. 271. Ibid. 18.4.111. 272. Ibid. 5.3.12, 12.34.176. 273. Ibid. 5.3.10.

245 274 the big fishes (Shafaras) and the sea-monsters (makaras) 275 in the deep seas which swallowed men. Whirlpools were also recorded by the sailors who took vogages along the 276 usual paths. These merchants are said to be seeing a sea-nymph which used to sing melodious music on a 'Vina' and enchanted the traveller that went between India 277 and Suvarnadvipa. In spite of these obstacles it appears that the traffic went throughout the year. taken to near and distant countries. Voyages were The Area of the Activities The sea-faring activities of the people of that age extended to a wide horizon. We have numerous references to show that Indian ships carried on trade between India and nearby countries on the west. Tamralipti on the eastern coast appears to be the centre of activity of that age from where the ships usually set sail to 278 various countries of the east. Indian merchants are 279 said to have visited the island of Suvarnadvipa. This island is often mentioned. Other islands with which 274. Nirnaya Sagar 18.1.111. 275. Ibid. 5.2.40-52, 18.4.110. 276. Ibid. 10.5.279-280, 3.4.293. 277. Ibid. 12.19.49. 278. Ibid. 8.1.46, 8.2.176, 10.1.164,172. During the Gupta Age trade with Ceylon and China was also carried through Tamralipti, SaletoreR.N.op.cit. p.143. 279. Ibid. 9.6.140, 9.2.318-321, 12.19.33, 9.4.86,87,100, 7.2.81,80, 9.6.62.

: 280 246 281 (we had commercial intercourse are the Narikela, Karpura, 284 285 286 282 283 Simhala, Kataha, Ratnakuta, Hamsadvipa, Utsthala, 287 288 Muktipura, Svatadvipa etc. They also visited the SouthEast Asian countries and probably went upto China since Chinam suka is mentioned to have been brought by 289 a merchant named Sukhadhana in the market of Kanchipuram. Innumerable are our references which mention the visits of Indian merchants to these islands. Thus it is said that Harshagupta of Tamnatipti went to Ratnakuta and Guhasena went to Kathahadvipa. The merchants Sunder- 290 291 sena and Jivadatta sett sailed to Suvarnadvipa, and again Nidhidatta and Dirghadarshin of Pundravardhana went to 292 Suvarnadvipa in a big ship and came back. Saktideva 293 went to the island of Utsthala. The Brahmin Chandraswami is said to have followed a merchant in search of his two 280. Nirnaya Sagar 9.4.14,18, 9.6.54. 281. Ibid. 9.6.62. 282. Ibid. 11.1.1-115, 18.1.86, 103,104,125.319,12.14.32. 9.6.62. 283. Ibid. 10.5.3., 2.5.180, 18.4.105, 9.6.59. 284. Ibid. 5.3.8, 7.2.9, 5.3.10-11. 285. Ibid. 12.6.328. 286. Ibid. 5.3.33. 287. Ibid. 9.1.175, 120, 165. 288. Ibid. 11.1.96, 12.34.262, 9.4.19. 289. Ibid. 7.9.72,75 and 89. Other contemporary sources also mention that Indian merchants visited and brought in a big trade from Burma, Sumatra, Java, Persion, Gulf, Zanzibar, China and Madagaskar, Mujumdar, op.cit., Vol. V. p.521-532. 290. Nirnaya Sagar 7.2.34. 291. Ibid. 9.4.122-123, 7.2.80-81. 292. Ibid. 12.19.49,37.40. 293. Ibid. 5.2.40,52. -

247 children and visited the islands of Narikela, Kataha, 294 Karpura, Suvarna and Simhala. This probably appears to be the common over-seas-trade-route which the merchants of the age used to follow. Sukhadhana is said to have brought pairs of excellent garments and Arthalobha 295 Another merchant named brought horses from China. Ishvaravarman went from Kanchanapuram to Svarnadvipa 296 and returned with great wealth. Chakra and Ratnadatta 297 are said to have gone to Svarnadvipa for trade. Sunder sena went to Hamsadvipa, Saktideva went to Ratnakuta and 298 Anangadeva went to Simhaladvipa. It It is also mentioned that a certain king named Prithvirupa reached the island of Muktipura after an 299 eight-days voyage in ships. 300 Devasmita, a daring lady, went to Katahavipa. The ambassador Dhavala sena of 301 Simhal advipa come to India. The most important of all these islands was Suvarnadvipa which is often mentioned in many stories from the Kathasaritsagara It is elsewhere mentioned as Suvarnabhumi, 294. Nirnaya Sagar 9.6.54-63, 7.9.214. 295. Ibid. 12.7.76, 7.9.72. 296. Ibid. 10.1.64, 173. 297. Ibid. 9.6.140. 298. Ibid. 5.3.8, 18.1.91. 299. Ibid. 9.1.175. 300. Ibid. 2.5.180. 301. Ibid. 18.1.103, 104.

237 Svarnadvipa and Suvarna. The Katahdvipa is another important island that has often been mentioned.