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CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION Architectural data in the Puranas are of absorbing interest for both specialist and the common people. Variety of stipulations provide sound canonical base for this plastic art. Here we have systematically scrutinized the various details of architectural nature incorporated in the Puranas. The architectural details of the Puranas make us aware of the fact that this corpus had the privilege of witnessing an age of great advancement in the realm of art and architecture. The Matsya Purana mentions as many as eighteen ancient architects and a list of twenty-five traditional works on silpa appears in the Agni Purana 1 It seems likely that some of these names are mythological, but at the same time, it may be possible that some of them were historical personages, and reputed authors in the science of architecture or sculpture. But unfortunately, their works have not yet come to us. Architecture is generally considered as a secular science, but the Puranic chapters and the treatises dealing with architectural and sculptural subjects contain verses eulogizing Vastudeva, the presiding deity of buildings. The Matsya Purana explains the name vastu as follows: 'As the various gods stayed (on the body of the creature; from 'to stay') he came to be called vastu.² It further says that the 鈭歷as construction of building should start after the worship of Vastudeva which

ZJV custom exists in India even today. The GP takes the word vastu in the sense of building, houses, hamlets and mansions, formation of townships, laying out of parks and gardens, construction of commercial streets, forts, temples and monasteries. Analysing the date of the Puranas, discussed in this study, no exact date has been fixed by scholars for their composition. The earliest architectural data in the Matsya Purana belongs not earlier than the Gupta period whereas the text cannot be placed later than the tenth century AD. The GP was composed between the eighth and tenth century AD since there is common terminology used in these Puranas. Scholars such as R.C. Hazra and F.E. Pargiter hold that the Agni Purana was completed between AD 800 to 900. The Bhavishya Purana incorporates data extending from fourth century BC to the Mughal times. It seems very likely that its compilation was not completed until the nineteenth century. Certainly many chapters contain data of much earlier period. Both Matsya Purana and Agni Purana contain each twenty-two and twenty-one chapters on architecture (Matsya Purana, chaps. 130, 217-18, 252-70; Agni Purana, chaps. 38- 43, 45, 61, 65, 93-4, 100-106, 167, 222, 247, 282), whereas GP only three (chaps. 46-8) and Bhavishya Purana only one (chap. 130). Uniqueness of Indian architecture is its perceptive concept of Vastupurusamandala. In the formation of the concept of the Vastupurusa, or Vastunara, 4 as he is called in some texts, the starting point is vastu. The area for the construction of the vastu is called vastuka in the

231 Arthasastra. The Agni Purana and other Puranas do not seem to make a difference between vastu and the Vastupurusa. The Puranas are, however clear about the nature of the vastu or the Vastupurusa. According to them the 5 Vastupurusa was in of the form of a demon. His figure was to be laid in the foundation of a building. The figure was to have a normally short hand contracted on the chest, his knees bent, pointed to the north-west and elbows to the south-east. On his body were to be shown various deities. On the surface above this figure the plan of the dwelling (be it a temple, house, fort or palace) was made with various other deities at different points. But in the Matsya Purana the Vastupurusa is ordained to be laid down in a prostrate position, with his face down, while in the earlier account he is. prescribed to be posited in a sitting posture. 6 The Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira account, more or less, closely follows that of the Matsya Purana, in the theme of the Vastupurusa, it calls the Vastupurusa also by the name Vastunara. The Samarangana Sutradhara follows the same pattern and scheme of the Vastupurusamandala as given in the two texts mentioned above. The Puranic Vastu/Vastupurusa was of a terrible and demoniac form. However, earlier in the Vedic belief, he was identified with Rudra and considered the grha-devata. Gradually this concept was applied to all architectural edifices whether secred or secular. As pointed out earlier that the Matsya Purana could be taken as the oldest of the four Puranas under study, this would mean that the concept of the Vastupurusa as elaborated in the Puranas could be taken back to the

232 S third/fourth century AD. This concept has been extended to the shapes of the plot, extension of plots and location of plots. The accurate measurement of time units perhaps brought further revolution in Vastupariksa as months, vara (days) and role of constellations too was considered of utmost importance in building a house or temple. 9 For example the Matsya Purana says that one should always select an auspicious time to start a bhavana. It prescribes that only some months. and days, and certain muhurtas are beneficial for house-building of the twelve months. Vaisakha, Asadha, Sravana, Magha and Phalguna are described as auspicious as well of profitable for starting a building construction. All the other days barring Sunday and Tuesday are stated to be auspicious." Then the process of examination of soil, where the building is to be constructed, is enumerated. The Puranas show favouritism to the construction of a building with plan of 64 and 81 squares diagrams. 12 13 Chapter 253, 254 and 255 of the Matsya Purana deal with the characteristics of houses with four salas, three salas, two salas and one sala. ¹³ The building with salas, whether it is a palace or temple, should have four doorways in different directions; it is known as sarvatabhadra and is considered very auspicious for both god and king. Other varieties having three, and one are also known. A slightly unsymmetrical building is known as trisala or dhanyaka.

233 The Puranas recommended that an expert in the science of housebuilding should first select and examine the site suitable for erecting the edifice of a temple. Particular and pointed attention was paid to the selection of the site for the temple. Many methods have been prescribed for the examination of the ground on which the temple was to be built. The fruits to be reaped by putting up a temple (either donating land or financing the construction) have been much publicized in the Puranas Without inventing an idea of Heaven there would have not been much donations to the construction of temples. It was considered the best of punya. The selected site for a temple is to be divided into sixteen parts of which four parts should be preserved for the garbhagrha. Doorways are to be planned on the sides of the temple. Measurements of the vedica, sikhara passages for circumambulation and walls are minutely prescribed. according to the plan of the temple. The Matsya Purana and Bhavishya Purana have discussed twenty types of temples along with their suggested dimensions. In Table 3 of chapter ill we have made an effort to compare these twenty types with those types mentioned in other vastusastras such as Brhat Samhita, Visvakarma Prakasa and central Indian text of eleventh century, Samaranganasutradhara. What becomes clear from this comparison is that once the list appeared in the Matsya Purana it was copied with minor variations by the authors and compilors of the later works such as the Vishvakarma Prakasha and the Samarangana Sutradhara? The two other Puranas which

234 we consider chronologically later than the Matsya Purana add a list of temples in five category, each category possessing nine models. The Matsya Purana says that seven prasadas from Meru to Sarvatabhadra are considered to be jyestha (i.e. of best quality), the eight from Vrsa to Mrgaraja and madhyama (medium) and the five from Hamsa to Sodasasra are kanistha (low quality) ones. The GP and Agni Purana have 45 types of temples divided into five broad categories which are certainly of a developed stage in comparison to that of Matsya Purana and Bhavishya Purana They do not contain chapters on the mandapa-laksana. The Matsya Purana has the detailed description of 27 types of mandapas. Thus, it seems that this second stratum of architectural material in the Matsya Purana is later than the date of the GP and Agni Purana It is prescribed that all these temples should be made of bricks, wood or stone. 14 The several distinctive features of temples enumerated in the Puranas seem to indicate that the nagara style of architecture was in a evolving stage and mandapika-type of stone temples have appeared in Madhyadesa and Orissa. The Kailasa-type of shrine appears to have referred to the temple with a ssikhara on the roof, a style which later came to be adopted all over north India. It is to be noted here that the nagarastyle of temple with a curvilinear sikhara was framed after the model of the mountain-peaks. Evidence tells us that some of the late Gupta shrines

235 were crowned with rudimentary sikhara structures. Inscriptions inform us that already in the fifth century AD temples with high and lofty towers. (sikharas) came into existence. The Mandasor stone inscription of Kumaragupta and Bandhuvarman (AD 436-473) refers to a sun temple at Dasapura, which was 'very lofty and pure, which touched the sky as it were with charming spires.' In fact the age of the Guptas proclaimed a new epoch in the history of Indian architecture and the Matsya Purana chapters on artistic developments contain the description of monuments some of which certainly existed during the Gupta period. While GP, Agni Purana and Bhavishya Purana do not provide detailed account on the dimension of the mandapas, however, the Matsya Purana describes the characteristics of various types of mandapas. They are of three classes: uttama, madhyama and kanistha. Altogether twenty-seven varieties of these mandapas may be triangular, circular with sixteen beautiful sides or rectangular. The biggest mandapa, according to this Purana, is puspaka with 64 pillars. It further states that paintings and beautiful carvings should be made on all types of pillars. The carving should be of lotuses, creepers, leaves, earthen pots and jars. 15 We have noticed that during the time of the Matsya Purana the age of plain and simple art gave way to that of the decorative art which formed a remarkable feature of buildings. 16 It seems probable that there was much advancement in the realm of art in India during the period of the composition of the Matsya Purana

236 The stipulations given in the Puranas were not only mere recommendations but trained artisans who were familiar with vastu texts applied them while constructing temples. Survey of temples in central and western India by Michael W. Meister, and in the western Himalaya by Laxman S. Thakur revealed that the ritual grid was actually put into practice. These scholars have found temple-plans of both 64 squares and The Matsya Purana contains the earliest and most elaborate description 81 squares. 17 of the Vastupurusamandala. It prescribes a grid of 8 x 8 = 64 squares for the temples, palaces 18 and a grid of 9 x 9 = 81 squares for the domestic buildings. 19 Puranas contain chapters on the planning of forts (durgas). Six types of forts are mentioned in the Matsya Purana and Agni Purana Among these giridurga is regarded as the best because it is difficult to conquer while other forts can be captured comparatively easily. From table 7 (appended to chapter IV) we can infer that the six types of forts referred to in the Matsya Purana and Agni Purana have common names. Interestingly, the names of the forts given in the Devi Bhagavata Purana are similar to those which appeared in the Arthasastra. Names given in the later works such as the Samarangana Sutradhara and Yuktikalpataru are different from those given in the Puranas. The Matsya Purana and Agni Purana provide a detailed guidelines as to how to protect a fort. The construction of rampart and moats ditches was considered very important from the viewpoint of security of the fort.

237 Apart from providing a detailed regulations for the constructions of temples. forts and ordinary houses there was no separate section on palaces in the Puranas. The Matsya Purana, GP and Agni Purana discuss general features for palace architecture. A royal palace, according to Matsya Purana, may be of five varieties. Such categorization has been devised on the basis of their sizes. The best of these five classes should be 108 by 135 cubits in width and breadth. There are also some prescriptions for the houses of the four castes. the Brahmanas given the top rank, and the largest of the houses. What is peculiar that the rajanivesa must also be planned according to ritual diagram Vastupadavinyasa. Whether such regulations were followed or not are not yet clear for no scholar has examined early medieval Indian palaces from the Vastupadavinyasa viewpoint. The measurements of the houses meant for the crown-prince, commander in-chiefs, chief servants, ministers, astrologer, preceptor, physician, priest as well as for the members of the four castes are enumerated in this study. The Matsya Purana maintains repulsive attitude against constructing multistoreyed buildings on a open road-way; a high-rise building on the open road is compared with vajra and brings in ruin of the owner of the house within a short time. 20 The planning of a house, as presented in the Puranas discussed by us in chapter VI is a most valuable information for a student of ancient

238 Indian vernacular architecture. According to the Matsya Purana, dwelling-house should not be built near a temple or close to wicked man's house or near a minister's residence or on a meeting place of four roads. 21 Information on house construction has been preserved in the three Puranas 22: Matsya Purana, GP and the Agni Purana There are detailed description right from the selection of the site to its completion. As we have pointed out that Brahmanas has received very dominating role in allotting a best piece of land at the secure place. There are some unusual methods for selecting the site for different castes. By the composition of the Matsya Purana and Agni Purana, it seems likely from the description in these texts, that astrology has come very popular, rather it was popularized by the Brahmanas by proliferating from urban to far flung areas where they were granted agraharas for performing pujas in the Brahmanical temples. Thus they popularized the science of astrology in these areas. One space should be left all round a building; the front-side of a house should not be covered with trees; rather, the back-portion may be covered with various trees. It is stated that the house should not be extended in one side only; if extension is required to be made, it should be carried on uniformly and symmetrically in all directions. The material used for the construction of houses is of great relevance in the present study. The material remains reveal that mainly mud-bricks, burnt bricks, wood and stone were used for the construction

239 purposes. The Matsya Purana has advised that the foundation should be made with well-burnt bricks, but timber and mud may also be used for that purpose. 23 Perhaps to make the site environment friendly, the Matsya Purana and Agni Purana recommended the plantation of certain species of trees in the vicinity of the habitations. The prescriptions for the locations of different rooms in a house are not uniform in the Puranas. Perhaps such variations have occurred because these texts were composed at different places where the movement of sun, moon and other constellations varied at different hours of a day. The architectural data in the four Puranas presented and analysed above have evolved in the Puranic text roughly between AD 300-1200, with the exception of certain portion of the Bhavishya Purana, composed and incorporated in it as late as the nineteenth century. Some of the specifications and prescriptions for building temples, palaces, houses could be followed, and in recent years many trained architects possessing Bachelor of Engineering degrees, have found vastusastric text very useful for planning houses or cities. This hidden knowledge needs to be studied, analysed and translated into various Indian languages so that the aspirants could be benefitted from this treasured corpus.

NOTES AND REFERENCES 240 1. Matsya Purana chap 253, 2-3; Agni Purana, chap 39 1, see table 2 in chapter I 2. Ibid chap 252 12: nivasat sarva-devanam vasturitya bhidhiyate. 3. 4 GP chap 46 2-3 Sadashiv A Dange, Encyclopaedia of Puranic Beliefs and Practices, vol. V, New Delhi, 1990, p. 1502; for Vastunara, Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, chap 53 3 5. Agni Purana, chap 93 3. 6. Matsya Purana, chap 252, 5-19 7 PV Kane, History of Dharmasastra, vol. II, pt. 2, 2nd edn, Poona, 1977, p 887, for Matsya Purana, p 899 f. 8. Aitareya Brahmana, 22 9, Taittiriya Samhita, III. 4.10.3. 9. 10. 11. 12. Matsya Purana, chap 253 1: yatha kalam subham jnatva sada bhavanam arabhet Ibid., 253 2-5 Ibid, 2537 aditya-bhaumavarjyastu sarva varah subhavahah. See in chap II, figs. 3, 4, 5. 13. See figs 7 (a-e), 8 (a-c); 9 (a-c) 14. Matsya Purana chap 269, 47. 15. Ibid, chap 254. 4: padmavati-lata-kumba-patra-darpana-rupitah. 16. V.RR Dikshitar, The Matsya Purana - A study, Madras, 1935, p 107.

241 17. 18. 19. See for example Michael W. Meister, 'Mandala and Practice in Nagara Architecture in Northern India', JAOS, vol. 99, no. 2, 1979, pp. 204-19; 'Analysis of temple Plans: Indor', Artibus Asiae, vol. XLIII, no. 4, 1981-2, pp. 202-20; Laxman S. Thakur, 'Application of Vastupurusamandala in Indian Temple Art: An Analysis of the Nagara Temple Plans of Himachal Pradesh', Artibus, Asiae vol. L, nos. 3-4, 1990, pp. 263-84. Also see, Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, pp. 21-97. Matsya Purana, chap. 253. 47-48. Ibid., chap. 253. 19-46; GP, chap. 46; Agni Purana, chaps 40, 93, 105, 106. also in Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, chaps. 53. 43-6; 56.10. 20. Matsya Purana, chap. 255. 17: adhvano madhyadese tvadhiko yasya vistarah | Vrajantu samkatam madhye sadyo bhartur vinasanam || 21. 22 23. Ibid., chap. 256.2: nadeva-dhurta-saciva-catvaranam-samantatah | Karayed bhavanam prajno duhkhasokabhayam tatah || Matsya Purana, chap. 256; GP, chap. 46; Agni Purana, chap. 106. Ibid., chap. 254. 41: pakvestaka bhaved bhittih darvair api kalpya syat tatha mrnmayabhittika.