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General information.

The 础尘补谤补办辞艣补 describes a 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 thus:

"sarga艣ca pratisarga艣ca va峁兣沷 manvantar膩峁噄 ca / 惫补峁兣浤乶耻肠补谤颈迟补峁� c膩pi pur膩峁嘺m pa帽calak峁�a峁嘺m //"

According to this definition, 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 is one which describes Sarga, Pratisarga, 痴补峁兣沘, Manvantara and 痴补峁兣浤乶耻肠补谤颈迟补. Among these Sarga and Pratisarga are natural creation and renovation (Cosmogony). 痴补峁兣沘 means history of sages and patriarchs. By Manvantara is meant the period of different Manus. 痴补峁兣浤乶耻肠补谤颈迟补 means Genealogy of kings. In the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s which are current now some of these five divisions are wanting.

Statements about 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s are found even in the 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺蝉. Therefore it is to be surmised that 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s existed even before historic times. 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 has used the term 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 to mean stories about devas and siddhas. The 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉 say that 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s are 颈迟颈丑腻蝉补蝉 and as such constitute the fifth Veda. 厂尘峁泃颈 says that 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s are commentaries on Vedas. From all these statements it can be gathered that 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s have a hoary past. The great Sanskrit scholar Ra峁単膩c膩rya has defined 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 as 笔耻谤腻 nava (笔耻谤腻=old; nava =new) meaning things which are as good as new though existing from olden times. Though there are large portions of wide imagination dealing with the human side in the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s many truths about the universe can be grasped from them. All the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s contain praises of 叠谤补丑尘腻, 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 and 惭补丑别艣惫补谤补. In most of the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s of old, new additions and interpolations are seen. The 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s in original were in existence before Christ.

"膩khy膩nai艣c膩pyup膩khy膩nair g膩th膩bhi岣� kalpa艣uddhibhi岣� / 辫耻谤腻峁嘺蝉补峁僪颈迟腻峁� cakre pur膩峁嚹乺thavi艣膩rada岣� //" (艢濒辞办补 15, Chapter 6, 础峁兣沘 3, 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 笔耻谤腻峁嘺)

"a峁ａ弓膩da艣a pur膩峁嚹乶i k峁泃v膩 satyavat墨suta岣� / bh膩rat膩khy膩namakhila峁� cakre tadupab峁涐箖ha峁嘺m //" (艢濒辞办补 70, Chapter 53, Matsya 笔耻谤腻峁嘺)

From the above it can be gathered that it was 痴测腻蝉补 who composed all the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s. 叠腻峁嘺 who lived in the seventh century A.D. speaks about 痴腻测耻 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. 碍耻尘腻谤颈濒补 叠丑补峁�峁�补 who lived in the eighth century and 艢补峁卥补谤腻肠腻谤测补 who lived in the ninth century speak about the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s. 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s must have therefore taken their present forms before the sixth or seventh century A.D.

There are eighteen major 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s and another eighteen minor ones. The major 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s contain over four lakhs of 艢濒辞办补s. All the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s are in verses like 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补. But none of them is as good as 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 as a piece of literature. Still the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s splendidly reflect the culture of 叠丑腻谤补迟补. The 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s are the basis of the bulk of Indian thinking on matters social, cultural, religious and political. Even the Indian art has taken form from the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s. The 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s are classified into three, those pertaining to 叠谤补丑尘腻, those pertaining to 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 and those to 艢颈惫补.

A. 痴颈峁ａ箛耻-based 笔耻谤腻nas.

(i) 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This is one of the most important of all the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s. This contains the five technical divisions of the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s. This is divided into six 补峁兣沘蝉. This deals with the events of 痴腻谤腻丑补办补濒辫补 and contains twentythree thousand 艣lokas. The theme is the ten incarnations of 惭补丑腻惫颈峁ａ箛耻. 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 is the most ancient of all the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s and has got the name 笔耻谤腻峁嘺ratna (gem of 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s).

The method of narration is in the form of teaching his disciple Maitreya by sage 笔补谤腻艣补谤补. Since there is a reference in it to the Maurya dynasty it is to be surmised that this was composed in the first or second century A.D. The narrator himself states thus:鈥�"痴测腻蝉补 an adept in the compositon of 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s composed this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 with 腻办丑测腻苍补蝉, Up腻办丑测腻苍补蝉, 驳腻迟丑腻蝉 and Kalpanir峁嘺yas. A 厂奴迟补 named 搁辞尘补丑补谤峁�a峁嘺 was 痴测腻蝉补鈥檚 chief disciple. The broad-minded 痴测腻蝉补 gave that 蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 to that s奴ta. 搁辞尘补丑补谤峁�a峁嘺 had six disciples named Sumati, Agnivarcas, 惭颈迟谤腻测耻蝉. 艢腻峁兣沘辫腻测补苍补, 础办峁泃补惫谤补峁嘺, and 厂腻惫补谤峁噄. Of these 础办峁泃补惫谤补峁嘺, 厂腻惫补谤峁噄 and 艢腻峁兣沘辫腻测补苍补 born in the Ka艣yapagotra have composed 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉补峁僪颈迟腻s. There is yet another 蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 composed by 搁辞尘补丑补谤峁�a峁嘺 which was the basis of the 蝉补峁僪颈迟腻s of his three disciples. I have composed 痴颈峁ａ箛耻pur膩峁嘺 basing on the above four 蝉补峁僪颈迟腻s."

If a man gives as gift a book of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 on the full moon day in the month of 腻峁Ｄ佱笉丑补 (July) with Jaladhenu he will attain 痴颈峁ａ箛耻p膩da.

(ii) 叠丑腻驳补惫补迟补 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This is the most popular and widely circulated of all the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s. It is dear to 痴颈峁ａ箛耻-devotees. Divided into twelve Skandhas this contains eighteen thousand 艣lokas. All the incarnations of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 are described in this. The most interesting Skandha is the tenth Skandha in which the author has described the life and activities of 艢r墨 碍峁涐梗峁嘺. There was once a belief that it was Baladeva who lived in the thirteenth century A.D. that had composed this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. But this belief was smashed when it was found that Vall膩lasena of Bengal who lived in the eleventh century A.D. had made references to this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 in some of his works. 叠丑腻驳补惫补迟补 accepts Kapila and Buddha as incarnations of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻. This has been translated into all Indian languages. This book has to be given as gift on the fullmoon day in the month of 笔谤辞峁ａ弓丑补辫补诲补 (September). Agni 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 instructs that this book is to be given along with a golden image of a lion.

(iii) N膩rad墨ya 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This is in the form of a narration by 狈腻谤补诲补 to 厂补苍补迟办耻尘腻谤补. In this book of twentyfive thousand verses 狈腻谤补诲补 teaches the dharmas of 叠峁沨补迟办补濒辫补. If this is given as gift on the full-moon day in the month of 膧艣惫颈苍补 there will be great prosperity.

(iv) 骋补谤耻岣峚 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This is in the form of instructions to 骋补谤耻岣峚 by 痴颈峁ａ箛耻. This deals with astronomy, medicine, grammar, and with the structure and qualities of diamonds. This 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 is dear to Vai峁ａ箛avites. The latter half of this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 deals with life after death. The Hindus of north-India generally read this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 while cremating the bodies of the dead. This has given great importance to the origin of 骋补谤耻岣峚. There are eight thousand verses in this book. This book should be given as gift along with an image in gold of a swan to get prosperity.

(v) Padma 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 (笔腻诲尘补 笔耻谤腻峁嘺). This book is divided into six 碍丑补峁囜笉补蝉 comprising fiftyfive thousand verses. The six 碍丑补峁囜笉补蝉 are S峁涐梗峁璱kha峁囜笉a, Bh奴mikha峁囜笉a, Svargakha峁囜笉a, 笔腻迟腻濒补kha峁囜笉a, Uttarakha峁囜笉a and Kriy膩yogas膩ra. The Uttarakha峁囜笉a describes the importance of all months and also the lotus, the seat of 叠谤补丑尘腻. This contains the stories of 艢补办耻苍迟补濒腻 and 艢r墨 搁腻尘补 as described by 碍腻濒颈诲腻蝉补 in his works 艢腻办耻苍迟补濒补 and Raghuva峁兣沘 which has made some believe that this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 was written after 碍腻濒颈诲腻蝉补. If this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 is given as gift with a cow in the month of 闯测别峁ａ弓丑补 (June) it brings prosperity.

(vi) 痴补谤腻丑补 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. The mode of narration is in the form of narrating the story by 痴补谤腻丑补, the third incarnation of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻. The theme is about holy places and mantras. It states that the goddess of earth prayed to 惭补丑腻惫颈峁ａ箛耻 and that prayer took the form of a goddess. This book contains fourteen thousand verses. If one copies down this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 and gives it as gift along with a golden image of 骋补谤耻岣峚 on the full-moon day in the month of Caitra (April) one will attain 痴颈峁ａ箛耻loka.

B. 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s relating to 叠谤补丑尘腻.

(i) Brahma 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This is in the form of teachings by 叠谤补丑尘腻 to 顿补办峁�a. This contains twentyfive thousand verses. This is called 膧di 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 also. There is a special treatise in this book on Orissa, an ancient holy region of 叠丑腻谤补迟补. There is in this a special annexure explaining the intimacy between 艢颈惫补 and 厂奴谤测补 which is a deviation from other 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s. Brahma 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 states about a s奴ryak峁�etra (sun-temple) situated at a place called Ko峁嚹乺ka near the holy place of 笔耻谤墨, installed there in the year 1241 A.D. If this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 along with Jaladhenu is given as a gift on the full-moon day in the month of 痴补颈艣腻办丑补 (May) the donor will attain heaven.

(ii) 叠谤补丑尘腻峁囜笉a 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This deals with the origin of the universe as told by 叠谤补丑尘腻. In the beginning there was a golden egg and the 辫谤补辫补帽肠补 (universe with its activities) was formed out of it. Portions of 础诲丑测腻迟尘补 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺, references to 搁腻诲丑腻 and 碍峁涐梗峁嘺 and the incarnation of 笔补谤补艣耻谤腻尘补 are included in this. This book contains twelve thousand verses and it is believed to be uttama (best) to give this book as a gift to a brahmin.

(iii) Brahmavaivarta 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This was instructed to 厂腻惫补谤峁噄ka by 狈腻谤补诲补. The theme is the story of Rathantara. There are four 办腻峁囜笉补蝉 in this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 called 叠谤补丑尘补办腻峁囜笉补, Prak峁泃ik膩峁囜笉a, Ga峁噀艣ak膩峁囜笉a and 碍峁涐梗峁嘺janmak膩峁囜笉a. This deals with Prapa帽cas峁涐梗峁璱 (creation of the universe). It says that Prapa帽ca is nothing but the Vaivartta (transformation) of Brahman. It is considered to be holy to give this book containing eighteen thousand verses as a gift on the full-moon day in the month of 惭腻驳丑补 (February).

(iv) M膩rka峁囜笉eya 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This is one of the ancient 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s. There are many stories regarding Indra, 厂奴谤测补 and Agni in this. This includes a division called Dev墨m膩h膩tmya containing praises about the goddess 顿耻谤驳腻. This contains nine thousand verses and it is considered as uttama (best) to give this book as a gift to a brahmin on a full-moon day in the month of 碍腻谤迟迟颈办补 (November).

(v) Bhavi峁�ya 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This is what is told to Manu by 厂奴谤测补 (Sun). This contains statements about future events. The book praises the worship of 厂奴谤测补 (Sun), Agni (fire) and 狈腻驳补 (serpent). There is an annexure dealing with the several holy places of 叠丑腻谤补迟补 and the rights of pilgrims. The book contains fourteen thousand verses and it is considered to be uttama (best) to give this book along with treacle as a gift to a brahmin on the full-moon day in the month of 笔补耻峁�a (January).

(vi) 痴腻尘补苍补 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. There is a great similarity between the contents of this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 and that of 痴补谤腻丑补 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. All the incarnations of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 from 痴腻尘补苍补 downwards are described in this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. The scene of 艢颈惫补 marrying 笔腻谤惫补迟墨 is vividly described in this book. This 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 contains ten thousand verses and it is considered to be uttama (best) to give this book as a gift in the autumn season or at the time of Vi峁�uva to a brahmin.

C. 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s relating to 艢颈惫补.

(i) 痴腻测耻 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 is told by 痴腻测耻. 叠腻峁嘺bha峁�峁璦 who lived in the seventh century A.D. makes references to this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 in his works. There are many references in this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 about the Gupta Kings who ruled 叠丑腻谤补迟补 in the 4th century A.D. So it is believed that this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 must have been written in the fifth or sixth century A.D The book contains plenty of verses in praise of 艢颈惫补. There are fourteen thousand verses in the 痴腻测耻 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 and it is considered to be best to give this book as a gift to a brahmin on the full-moon day in the month of 艢谤腻惫补峁嘺 (August).

(ii) Li峁単a 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This contains instructions of 艢颈惫补 on Dharma sitting in the form of 濒颈峁単补 (Phallus). The twentyeight different forms of 艢颈惫补 are described in this. This contains twelve thousand verses and if this book is given as a gift to a brahmin with tiladhenu on the full-moon day in the month of 笔丑腻濒驳耻苍补 (March) the donor will attain 艢颈惫补s膩yujya.

(iii) 厂办腻苍诲补 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 is narrated by Skanda. The theme is the slaughter of the demon 罢腻谤补办腻蝉耻谤补 by Skanda (厂耻产谤补丑尘补峁噛补). There is a great similarity between this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 and the 碍耻尘腻谤补蝉补尘产丑补惫补 of 碍腻濒颈诲腻蝉补. There are eightyfour thousand verses in this 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 and giving this book as a gift is thought to be good.

(iv) Agni 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 was instructed to the sage 痴补蝉颈峁ａ弓丑补 by Agnideva. There are several references in this to 艢颈惫补濒颈峁単补 and 顿耻谤驳腻dev墨. The incarnations of 搁腻尘补 and 碍峁涐梗峁嘺 are also dealt with in this. Distinct from other 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s this book deals with arts and science like Kavy膩la峁卥膩ran膩峁璦kas (Poems, dramas, figures of speech), Jyoti艣s膩stra (Astronomy) and 艢ilpakal膩 (architecture). This 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 contains twelve thousand verses and is capable of imparting knowledge on all arts and sciences.

(v) Matsya 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 was taught to Manu by Matsya, the incarnation of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻, The incarnation of Matsya is dealt in this. Several subjects like Jainamata (religion of Jainism), Buddhamata (Buddhism), 狈腻峁瓂补艣腻蝉迟谤补 (histrionics) and 膧苍诲丑谤补r膩java峁僺a (kingdom and Kings of 膧苍诲丑谤补) are discussed in this book. The book contains thirteen thousand verses and this is to be given as gift along with a golden image of a fish at the time of Vi峁�uva.

(vi) 碍奴谤尘补 笔耻谤腻峁嘺. This 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 is taught by 碍奴谤尘补m奴rti (incarnation of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 as 碍奴谤尘补 (tortoise) while narrating the story of Indradyumna at 笔腻迟腻濒补. All the seven islands and seven oceans are described in this book. 叠丑腻谤补迟补 is situated in the centre of all these and is called 闯补尘产奴诲惫墨辫补. Though it is believed that there were four 蝉补峁僪颈迟腻s for this, only the Br膩hma蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 is available now. It includes 莫艣varag墨t膩 and 痴测腻蝉补g墨t膩. The book contains eight thousand verses and is to be given as gift along with a golden image of tortoise.

鲍辫补辫耻谤腻峁嘺蝉.

There are eighteen minor 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s besides the eighteen major ones. They are:鈥�(1) 厂补苍补迟办耻尘腻谤补 (2) 狈腻谤补蝉颈峁僪补 (3) N膩rad墨ya (4) 艢颈惫补 (5) 顿耻谤惫腻蝉补蝉 (6) 碍腻辫颈濒补 (7) 惭腻苍补惫补 (8) 鲍艣补苍补蝉 (9) 痴腻谤耻峁嘺 (10) 碍腻濒颈办补 (11) 厂腻尘产补 (12) Saura (13) 膧诲颈迟测补 (14) 惭腻丑别艣惫补谤补 (15) 顿别惫墨产丑腻驳补惫补迟补 (16) 痴腻蝉颈峁ａ弓丑补 (17) 痴颈峁ａ箛耻dharmottara (18) 狈墨濒补mata 笔耻谤腻峁嘺.

The two 鲍辫补辫耻谤腻峁嘺蝉 mentioned lastly are associated with Kashmir. The first is about the 痴补颈峁ａ箛补惫补 religion there and the second about the wise saying of a 狈腻驳补 King of the place called 狈墨濒补. (笔耻谤腻峁嘺s; History of Sanskrit Literature).