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The mythical beings mentioned in the Ocean of Story are:

Apsaras	骋补峁嘺	狈腻驳补
Asura	Gandharva	笔颈艣腻肠补
叠丑奴迟补	Guhyaka	搁腻办峁�a蝉补
Daitya	Kinnara	Siddha
顿腻苍补惫补	碍耻尘产丑腻峁囜笉补	痴别迟腻濒补
Dasyus	碍耻峁�m腻峁囜笉补	痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补 驰补办峁�a

Of the above the great majority are mentioned in Book I, but Apsaras, Daitya and 顿腻苍补惫补 occur for the first time in Book II, 痴别迟腻濒补 in Book V, 碍耻尘产丑腻峁囜笉补 in Book VIII, Dasyus in Book IX, 叠丑奴迟补 in Book XII, and Ku峁�m膩nda in Book XVII.

It is possible to classify them under four headings as follows: 鈥�

1. Enemies of the gods, very rarely visiting the earth: Asura, Daitya, 顿腻苍补惫补.
2. Servants of the gods, frequently connected with mortals: Gandharva, Apsaras, 骋补峁嘺, Kinnara, Guhyaka and 驰补办峁�a.
3. Independent superhumans, often mixing with mortals: 狈腻驳补, Siddha and 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补.
4. Demons, hostile to mankind: 搁腻办峁�a蝉补, 笔颈艣腻肠补, 痴别迟腻濒补, 叠丑奴迟补, Dasyus, 碍耻尘产丑腻峁囜笉补, 碍耻峁�m腻峁囜笉补.

 

1. Enemies of the Gods

The origin of the terms Asura, Daitya and 顿腻苍补惫补 is of the greatest importance in attempting to ascertain the exact position they hold in Indian mythology. It is not sufficient merely to say they are usually applied to the enemies of the gods.

Although many derivations of the word asura have been suggested, it seems very probable that the simplest is the most correct鈥攏amely, that it comes from asu, spirit, life-breath. (See Brugmann, Vergl. Gramm., ii, p. 189.) It means, therefore, 鈥渟piritual being,鈥� and, as such, is applied to nearly all the greater Vedic gods.

Among the suggested derivations, however, mention may be made of that which is looked for in Mesopotamia. Attempts have been made to trace it thence to India. As the theory is attractive I will attempt to give the main lines of argument.

In the early Vedas, including the older hymns of the 峁欢-痴别诲补, the word asura is an alternative designation for 鈥渄eity,鈥� or 鈥渇riendly gods,鈥� besides being used as an epithet of the most important gods, such as 痴补谤耻峁嘺, Rudra, etc. In the later Vedas, and especially in the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉, asura is used to denote a formidable enemy of the gods (Devas). It is this strange contradiction of meanings that has led scholars to suspect some foreign origin of the word, and to attempt to trace its etymology.

Assur, Asur, Ashir, or Ashur was the national god of Assyria from whom both the country and its primitive capital took their names. The exact meaning of the word is not known; it has been interpreted as 鈥渁rbiter,鈥� 鈥渙verseer,鈥� or 鈥渓ord,鈥� but its original meaning is wrapped in mystery. The Persians borrowed the word, which became alnura, meaning 鈥渓ord鈥� or 鈥済od.鈥� The Vedic Hindus did likewise, but gradually altered the meaning to the exact opposite. Various suggestions are put forward to account for this.

The discovery of a treaty in Asia Minor between the King of the Hittites and the King of Mitani (see Joum. Roy. Asiatic Soc., 1909, p. 721 et seq.) shows that the Vedic Aryans were neighbours of the Assyrians, so it may be that the progress of these Aryans into India was contested by their neighbours, the Asuras, just in the same way as later it was contested by the Dasyus in India itself.

Thus in time, when the religious system began to be fully developed, reminiscences of the human Asuras and their fights with the Aryans would be transformed into a myth of the enmity between the Devas (gods) and Asuras. (For details of this theory see Bhandarkar鈥檚 鈥淭he Aryans in the Land of the Assurs,鈥� Joum. Bombay Br. Roy. As. Soc., vol. xxv, 1918, p. 76 et seq.)

We may, however, find further possibilities from Assyria鈥檚 other neighbours, the Iranians. As I have already mentioned, they used the word ahura to mean 鈥渓ord鈥� or 鈥済od,鈥� but it is significant to note that 诲补毛惫补 denoted evil spirits. The various nations of the Mesopotamian area had many gods in common, but their different interpretations of the speculative philosophy of life soon led them into different paths of religious thought and application. Zoroaster鈥檚 doctrine helped to widen this breach when he made the evil spirits appear in the Avesta as 诲补脓惫补蝉. In India the conception of asura gradually became a god of reverence and fear with an awful divine character, while deva became more friendly in its meaning and kinder to humans. Zoroaster, however, looking upon the 诲补脓惫补蝉 as upstarts who were gradually ousting the original position of the Asuras, elevated the latter and added the epithet Mazd膩o, the 鈥渨ise,鈥� to their name. Thus arose the Persian Ahur艒 Mazd膩o, which in time became Ormazd, the 鈥淲ise Lord,鈥� the 鈥淎ll-father.鈥� The 诲腻别惫补蝉, in inverse ratio, became enemies of the gods. In India, as we have seen, the exact opposite had taken place, and thus the curious difference of meaning is brought about.

It is often said that the word asura means 鈥渘ot-god,鈥� the negative 鈥渁鈥� being prefixed to sura, which means 鈥済od.鈥� This, however, is incorrect, the exact opposite being the case. When the Asuras had become the enemies of the gods, the word sura was formed as meaning the opposite of asura.

Turning now to the terms Daitya and 顿腻苍补惫补, we find that Daitya means 鈥渄escendant of Diti.鈥� Diti is a female deity mentioned in the 峁欢-Veda and Atharva-Veda, whose particular nature was apparently little known. She is usually regarded as the sister of 膧诲颈迟测补, to whom she probably owes her existence (cf. the way in which sura was formed from asura). The name 膧诲颈迟测补 is used as a metronymic from Aditi to denote some of the most important deities; thus their enemies were named Daityas after Diti.

According to the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 (i, 65) the Asura race was derived from five daughters of 顿补办峁�a, son of 叠谤腻丑尘补. Of these daughters two were Aditi and Diti. A third was 顿腻苍耻, from whom the name 顿腻苍补惫补 is derived. Thus the close relationship of the three terms will be realised, although it is only the word asura that may have an ancient extraneous history.

In the Ocean of Story the Asuras, Daityas and 顿腻苍补惫补s are, with few exceptions, represented as the enemies of the gods. In Book VIII, however, where the terms asura and 诲腻苍补惫补 are used synonymously, we find one called Maya who comes to earth in order to teach the hero the magic sciences. To do this he takes the prince back to 笔腻迟腻濒补, which is the usual dwelling-place not only of the Asuras, but also of the 狈腻驳补s, or snake-gods. 笔腻迟腻濒补 is described as a place of great beauty, with magnificent castles and abundance of every kind of wealth. Some of the Asuras prefer to dwell outside 笔腻迟腻濒补, either in the air, in heaven, or even on earth itself.

The widely different legendary accounts of the history of the Asuras are to be found in the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 and the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉. (See Wilson鈥檚 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 笔耻谤腻峁嘺, i, 97; ii, 69.)

The power that Asuras can obtain is shown by the story of Jalandhara, an Asura who actually conquered 痴颈峁ａ箛耻, and whom neither 艢颈惫补 nor Indra could destroy.

In the Churning of the Ocean the gods found they could not get on without the help of the Asuras. Occasionally they have actually been held in respect and worshipped. In the V膩yu 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 is the history of Gaya, an Asura who was so devout in the worship of 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 that his accumulated merit alarmed the gods. (This legend is given in a note in Chapter XCIII of this work, when Gaya is actually referred to.)

搁腻丑耻 should also be mentioned, who is the Asura causing the eclipses of the sun and moon.

Further details will be found in H. Jacobi鈥檚 article, under 鈥淒aitya,鈥� in Hastings鈥� Ency. Bel. Eth., vol. iv, p. 390 et seq.

It is interesting to note that the term 腻蝉耻谤补 is applied to marriage by capture. It forms with the 辫补颈艣腻肠丑补 variety the two kinds of marriage condemned by Manu as altogether improper. In modern days, however, the 腻蝉耻谤补 form is recognised even for the 痴补颈艣测补 and S奴dra castes.

 

2. Servants (or Attendants) of the Gods

Foremost among these are the Gandharvas and Apsa-rases.

In the early Vedas the Gandharvas occupy a minor position, which in later days became more prominent. They are trusted servants of the gods, having guard of the celestial soma, and so become heavenly physicians, as soma is a panacea. They also direct the sun鈥檚 horses and act as servants to Agni, God of Fire and Light, and to 痴补谤耻峁嘺, the divine judge. They dwell in the fathomless spaces of the air, and stand erect on the vault of heaven. They are also (especially in the Avesta) connected with the waters, and in the later Vedas have the Apsarases, who were originally water-nymphs, as wives or mistresses. It is at this period, too, that they become especially fond of and dangerous to women, but at the same time they are the tutelary deities of women and marriage. They are always represented as being gorgeously clad and carrying shining weapons.

In post-Vedic times they are the celestial singers and musicians at Indra鈥檚 Court, where they live in company with the Apsarases. They wander about the great spaces of air at random. Thus the term gandharvanagara means 鈥渕irage鈥� 鈥� literally, the 鈥渃ity of the Gandharvas.鈥�

They often visit humans, being attracted by beautiful women.

In number they vary greatly in different accounts. They are twelve, twenty-seven, or innumerable.

The 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 says they are the offspring of 叠谤补丑尘腻, and recounts how 60,000,000 of them warred against the 狈腻驳补s, or snake-gods, but they were destroyed with 痴颈峁ａ箛耻鈥檚 help.

Finally, they lend their name to a form of marriage. When two people desire mutual intercourse the resulting marriage is called 驳腻苍诲丑补谤惫补, because these spirits of the air are the only witnesses. Full details of the 驳腻苍诲丑补谤惫补 marriage have already been given in this volume (pp. 87, 88).

We now pass on to the Apsarases, who, as we have already seen, were originally water-nymphs. (Their very name means 鈥渕oving in the waters.鈥�) They are seldom mentioned in the Vedas, 鲍谤惫补艣墨, who became the wife of King 笔耻谤奴谤补惫补蝉, being one of the most famous. (峁欢-痴别诲补, x, 95, and Ocean of Story, Chapter XVIII.)

In the later Vedas they frequent trees, which continually resound with the music of their lutes and cymbals.

In the Epics they become the wives of the Gandharvas, whom they join as singers, dancers and musicians in Indra鈥檚 Court. They serve the gods in other capacities; for instance, if a pious devotee has acquired so much power by his austerities that the gods themselves are in danger of being subservient to him, a beautiful Apsaras is at once dispatched to distract him from his devotions (e.g. 惭别苍补办腻 seduced 痴颈艣惫腻尘颈迟谤补 and became the mother of 艢补办耻苍迟补濒腻).

The beauty and voluptuous nature of the Apsarases is always emphasised, and they are held out as the reward for fallen heroes in Indra鈥檚 paradise. In this they resemble the Mohammedan houris.

According to the 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 and the 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 they were produced at the Churning of the Ocean. When they first appeared in this way, neither the gods nor the Asuras would have them as their wives; consequently they became promiscuous in their affections. They have the power of changing their forms, and are most helpful and affectionate to mortals whom they favour.

They preside over the fortunes of the gaming-table, and it is here that their friendship is most desirable.

The estimate of their number varies, but it is usually put at 35,000,000, of which 1060 are the chief.

In the Ocean of Story they often fall in love with mortals, but are usually under some curse for past misbehaviour. In Chapter XXVIII King Sushena recognises his future Apsaras wife as divine, 鈥渟ince her feet do not touch the dust, and her eye does not wink.鈥� As soon as she bears him a child she is forced to return to her abode in the heavens.

骋补峁嘺 is the name given to an attendant of 艢颈惫补 and 笔腻谤惫补迟墨. The chief is Gane艣a (鈥淟ord of 骋补峁嘺s鈥�), who is a son of 艢颈惫补 and 笔腻谤惫补迟墨. He it was who ranked as chief of the followers of 艢颈惫补, hence all the others are termed 骋补峁嘺s. The position seems, however, to have been an honorary one as far as 骋补峁噀艣补 was concerned, for we find in actual practice that Nandi, 艢颈惫补鈥檚 bull, was leader of the 骋补峁嘺s. As we have seen in the Introduction to the Ocean of Story, both 艢颈惫补 and 笔腻谤惫补迟墨 kept strict control over their 骋补峁嘺s, and any breach of discipline was punished by banishment from 碍补颈濒腻蝉补鈥� usually to the world of mortals, where they had to serve their time till some event or other brought the curse to an end.

Kinnaras, Guhyakas and 驰补办峁�as are all subjects to Kuvera, or 痴补颈艣谤补惫补峁嘺, the God of Wealth and Lord of Treasures.

Kinnaras sing and play before Kuvera, and have human bodies and horses鈥� heads. The 碍颈尘辫耻谤耻峁�a蝉, who have horses鈥� bodies and human heads (like the centaurs), are also servants of Kuvera, but are not mentioned in the Ocean of Story.

The Guhyakas help to guard Kuvera鈥檚 treasure and dwell in caves. They are often (as in Chapter VI of the Ocean of Story) synonymous with 驰补办峁�as. The beings who assisted Kuvera in guarding treasures were originally called 搁补办峁�a蝉, but the name savoured too much of the demons, the 搁腻办峁�a蝉补s, who were subject to 搁腻惫补峁嘺, the half-brother of Kuvera鈥� so the name 驰补办峁�as was adopted. The word 测补办峁�a means 鈥渂eing possessed of magical powers,鈥� which, as we shall see later, is practically the same meaning as 惫颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补.

It appears that both 驰补办峁�as and 搁腻办峁�a蝉补s come under the heading of 搁补办峁�a蝉, the former being friendly to man and servants of Kuvera, the latter being demons and hostile to man.

 

3. Independent Superhumans

The 狈腻驳补s are snake-gods dwelling in 笔腻迟腻濒补, the underworld, in a city called 叠丑辞驳补惫补迟墨. Although snake-worship dates from the earliest times in India, there is but little mention of 狈腻驳补s in the Vedas. In the Epics, however, they attain full recognition and figure largely in the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补. Here their origin is traced to 碍补诲谤奴 and 碍补艣测补辫补, and their destruction through the sacrifice of Janamejaya is related.

In some stories they retain their reptilian character throughout; in others they possess human heads, or are human as far as the waist. They are usually friendly to man unless ill-treated, when they have their revenge if not duly propitiated.

骋补谤耻岣峚, the sun-god, is their enemy (see the Ocean of Story, Chapter LXI), from whom they fly. As the snake is sometimes looked upon as representative of darkness, the idea has arisen that they are eaten by 骋补谤耻岣峚, or the dawn, each morning (see pp. 103-105 of this volume).

The extent of serpent-worship in India can be imagined when we read in Crooke鈥檚 Folk-Lore of Northern India (vol. ii, p. 122) that in the North-West Provinces there are over 25,000 狈腻驳补-worshippers, and in the census-returns 123 people recorded themselves as votaries of G奴ga, the snake-god.

It would be out of place here to give details of the ceremonies, superstitions and arch忙ological remains of snake-worship throughout India. I would merely refer readers to Cook鈥檚 article, 鈥淪erpent-Worship,鈥� in the Ency. Brit., vol. xxiv, pp. 676-682, and that by Macculloch, Crooke and Welsford in Hastings鈥� Ency. Rel. Eth., vol. xi, pp. 399-423. Both contain full bibliographical references.

Readers will remember the amazing story in the Nights (Burton, vol. v, p. 298 to the end of the volume) of 鈥淭he Queen of the Serpents,鈥� whose head alone is human, and the sub-story, 鈥淭he Adventures of Bulukiya,鈥� where Solomon and his ring are guarded by fiery serpents. The relationship of the 狈腻驳补s to the 笔颈艣腻肠补s is discussed below, in section 4. Their origin, like that of the 笔颈艣腻肠补s, was probably a primitive hill tribe of North India.

Siddhas play a very unimportant part in Hindu mythology. They are described as kindly ghosts who always behave in a most friendly manner to mankind. They are usually mentioned in company with 骋补峁嘺s and 痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补s, as at the commencement of the Ocean of Story. In the earlier mythology they were called 厂腻诲丑测补蝉 (Manu, i, 22), where their great purity is emphasised.

痴颈诲测腻诲丑补谤补s play a very important part in the Ocean of Story and require little explanation here, as their habits, abode and relations with mortals are fully detailed in the work itself.

Their government is similar to that in the great cities on earth; they have their kings, viziers, wives and families. They possess very great knowledge, especially in magical sciences, and can assume any form they wish. Their name means 鈥減ossessing spells or witchcraft.鈥�

 

4. Demons

The 搁腻办峁�a蝉补s are the most prominent among malicious superhumans. From the 峁欢-痴别诲补 days they have delighted in disturbing sacrifices, worrying devout men when engaged in prayer, animating dead bodies and generally living up to the meaning of their name, 鈥渢he harmers鈥� or 鈥渄estroyers.鈥�

In appearance they are terrifying and monstrous. In the Atharva-Veda they are deformed, and blue, green or yellow in colour. Their eyes, like those of the Arabian jinn, are long slits up and down, their finger-nails are poisonous, and their touch most dangerous. They eat human flesh and also that of horses. 笔腻谤惫补迟墨 gave them power to arrive at maturity at birth.

It is at night that their power is at its height, and it is then that they prowl about the burning-grounds in search of corpses or humans. They are, moreover, possessors of remarkable riches, which they bestow on those they favour.

Chief among 搁腻办峁�a蝉补s is 搁腻惫补峁嘺, the great enemy of 搁腻尘补. Reference should be made to Crooke鈥檚 Folk-Lore of Northern India, vol. i, p. 246 et seq.

They have also given the name to one of the eight forms of marriage which Manu says is lawful only for men of the 碍峁�a迟谤颈测补 caste.

The 笔颈艣腻肠补s are rather similar to the 搁腻办峁�a蝉补s, their chief activities being in leading people out of their way, haunting cemeteries, eating human flesh and indulging in every kind of wickedness. In Chapter XXVIII of the Ocean of Story they appear to possess healing power, and, after being duly propitiated, cure disease.

In the Vedas they are described as 办谤补惫测腻诲, 鈥渆aters of raw flesh,鈥� which is perhaps the etymological sense of the word 笔颈艣腻肠补 itself. In the 搁腻尘补y膩峁嘺 they appear occasionally as ghouls, but in the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 besides being ghouls they are continually represented as human beings living in the north-west of India, the 贬颈尘腻濒补测补蝉 and Central Asia. This is one of the points which has led Sir George Grierson to believe in the human origin of the 笔颈艣腻肠补s. (See the numerous references given in my note on Pai艣膩ch墨, the 笔颈艣腻肠补鈥檚 language, on pp. 92, 93.)

Macdonell and Keith (Vedic Index, vol. i, p. 533) consider that when they appeared as human tribes, they were presumably thus designated in scorn. A science called 笔颈艣腻肠补-veda or 笔颈艣腻肠补-惫颈诲测腻 is known in the later Vedic period. (See Gopatha 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺, i, 1, 10, and 膧艣惫补濒腻测补苍补 艢rauta S奴tra, x, 7, 6.)

There is a form of marriage named 辫补颈茅腻肠丑补, after the 笔颈艣腻肠补s, which consists of embracing a woman who is drugged, insane or asleep. This is mentioned by Manu as the last and most condemned form of marriage. It was, however, permissible to all castes except 叠谤腻丑尘补ns. (See Manu, Sacred Books of the East, B眉hler, vol. xxv, pp. 79-81 and 83.)

Finally there are the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺 legends to be considered. They state that the valley of Kashmir was once a lake. 艢颈惫补 drained off the water and it was peopled by the 笔谤补箩腻辫补迟颈 碍补艣测补辫补. He had numerous wives, but three in particular, from whom were born the 狈腻驳补s, the 笔颈艣腻肠补s, the 驰补办峁�as and the 搁腻办峁�a蝉补s. Thus the relationship of these various demons is understood.

Both Buddhist and non-Buddhist literature continually refers to them synonymously, and in modern Kashmiri the word yachh, for 测补办峁�a, has taken the place of the old 辫颈艣腻肠补.

There is also a rather similar legend in the 狈墨濒补尘补迟补, a legendary account of Kashmir dating (so Grierson says) from perhaps the sixth or seventh century. According to it 碍补艣测补辫补 first peopled the dried valley of Kashmir only with the 狈腻驳补s. He then wished to introduce men, but the 狈腻驳补s objected. 碍补艣测补辫补 cursed them, and for every six months of the year his other sons, the 笔颈艣腻肠补s, who came from an island in the sand ocean (an oasis in Central Asia, probably Kh艒tan), dwelt there.

Many similar stories are found in the Dard country, north and west of Kashmir.

痴别迟腻濒补s are also closely related to the above demons. They are almost entirely confined to cemeteries and burning-grounds, where they specialise in animating dead bodies.

The twenty-five tales of a 痴别迟腻濒补 are included in the Ocean of Story, where their nature is fully described.

叠丑奴迟补 is really a generic name given to ghosts of many kinds. They are often synonymous with both 搁腻办峁�a蝉补s and 笔颈艣腻肠补s. (See E. Arbman, Rudra, p. 165 et seq.)

The 叠丑奴迟补 proper is the spirit of a man who has met a violent death, in consequence of which it assumes great malignity against the living.

The three tests of recognising a 叠丑奴迟补 are: (1) it has no shadow; (2) it cannot stand burning turmeric; (3) it always speaks with a nasal twang. It plays a very minor part in the Ocean of Story, being mentioned only once.

Crooke (op. cit.₉ vol. i, p. 234 et seq.) has given very full details of the modern 叠丑奴迟补, its veneration and the numerous superstitious rites connected with it.

Dasyus (or 顿腻蝉补蝉) was originally the name given to the aboriginal tribes of India who resisted the gradual advance of the Aryans from the west. Owing to the legends which naturally sprang up about the bloody battles with these early foes, they have been introduced into fiction as demons of terrible and hideous appearance and are classed with 搁腻办峁�a蝉补s and 笔颈艣腻肠补s.

They are described as having a black skin, being snubnosed, god-hating, devoid of rites, addicted to strange vows, and so forth.

They are mentioned only once in the Ocean of Story, and then in company with 搁腻办峁�a蝉补s.

碍耻尘产丑腻峁囜笉补s and 碍耻峁�m腻峁囜笉补s are also mentioned only once, and are merely a variety of demon, and of little importance.

The two words are probably synonymous, one being Sanskrit and the other Prakrit.