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The 惭补丑腻惫补驳驳补,^[1] belonging to the 厂耻迟迟补苍颈辫腻迟补 mentions sixty-three different philosophical schools, those probably of non-Br膩hma峁噄cal in character, existed at the time of Gautama Buddha. In the Jaina literature also, passages are found containing a larger amount of unorthodox doctrines.^[2] These evidences are sufficient to prove the existence of other unorthodox religious system in India, prior to the Pur膩峁噄c religion.

The Jainism, propounded by 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补, the 膧j墨vakism by Gos膩la Ma峁卥haliputta and the Buddhism by Gautama Buddha were the well known anti-Vedic religious systems, prevalent in ancient India.

Jainism:

Among the anti-Vedic religious teachers, 痴补谤诲丑补尘腻苍补 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 was one, who is regarded as the propounder of Jainism. 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 was born in a suburb of 痴补颈艣腻濒墨, the capital of the famous republican clan of the Licchavis. He had practised severe austerity and became the founder or rather the reformer of the Jaina church.^[3] According to the Jaina tradition, there were twenty-three 迟墨谤迟丑补峁卥补谤补蝉, i.e. prophets before 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补.^[4] Professor Jacobi holds P膩r艣van膩tha, the twenty-third 迟墨谤迟丑补峁卥补谤补 as the propounder of Jainism.^[5] But, no adequate evidences, in support of this view can be obtained. History ascribes P膩r艣van膩tha with another religious sect, known as Nirgrantha.^[6] 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 was immediately preceded by P膩r艣van膩tha. He belonged to the same religious sect; but later on, he had given rise to his own religious sect by his own personality.

The four great vows of Jainism, viz. not to injure life, to be truthful, not to steal and to possess no property were imparted by P膩r艣van膩tha, where 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 added a fifth one, i.e. chastity.^[7] The Jainas were against to the Br膩hma峁噄cal tradition. They did not recognise the Vedas as authoritative though they had a little faith in caste distinction and in the Br膩hma峁噄cal rites and duties. As for example, 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 valued most the fourth stages of life and recommended it to his followers. Besides this, the Jainas believed in the individual eternal soul and regarded austerity as the essential means of salvation. Unlike the 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉, they believed each individual soul as eternal and there was no scope of integration in between the individual soul and the ultimate soul.^[8]

The observations made by the two teachers, P膩r艣van膩tha and 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补, were almost same; but they varied in some points of views. P膩r艣van膩tha allowed his disciple to wear an upper and under garments where 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 ordained the rule that obliged the ascetic to be completely naked.^[9]

膧箩墨惫补办补蝉

Gos膩la Ma峁卥haliputta formed another religious system conflicting against the Jainism. He was the great rival of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 who lived with him for six years practising austerities. Due to a dispute, they were separated and Gos膩la Ma峁卥haliputta set up a new religious system whose followers were called as the 膧箩墨惫补办补蝉.^[10] Gos膩la made 艢谤腻惫补蝉迟墨 his head quarters and shifted there.

The teachings of the 膧j墨vakism resembled much more with the 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补. But Gos膩la was not very strict about the moral matters like that of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补. It is impossible to determine the spread and popularity of this religious system due to insufficient evidences. A scrappy account about the 膧箩墨惫补办补蝉 was only found in the Jaina works where the authors attacked Gos膩la with their words. It proves the powerful existence of the sect of 膧箩墨惫补办补蝉 in the region that stood as an obstacle to the spread of Jaina religious system. From some inscriptional evidences, it is seen that the sect of the 膧箩墨惫补办补蝉 continued during the reign of 础艣辞办补 and his successors.^[11]

Buddhism:

Under the royal patronage of the great kings 础艣辞办补, 碍补苍颈峁�k补 and 贬补谤峁�a惫补谤诲丑补苍补, the Buddhism had flourished out all over India. Gautama Buddha had formulated the religious system called Buddhism that was contemporary to the Jainas and 膧箩墨惫补办补蝉. Buddhism was not really a revolt against the caste, but against the sacrificial system, against the Veda and its authority was to show the way to salvation. As Buddha laid sole stress on the moral effort, non-violence, truth, etc., which had been already integrated to the Hinduism, the religion of Buddha may be regarded as the reformation in Hinduism.^[12]

The Buddhism included in it the traditions, belief and spiritual practices based on the teachings of Buddha. In the first sermon in the deer-park, near Banaras, Buddha preached that one who renounced the world should shun two extremes, viz. the pursuit of pleasure and the practice of useless austerities, which led to wisdom and salvation. He had expounded the four noble truths, rightly called as 肠补迟惫腻谤颈 腻谤测补蝉补迟测腻苍颈, viz. 诲耻岣�k丑补, i.e. suffering, 诲耻岣�k丑补-samudaya, i.e. cause of suffering, 诲耻岣�k丑补-nirodha, i.e. the suppression of suffering and 诲耻岣�k丑补-nirodhag膩min墨 辫补峁璱辫补诲腻, i.e. the way that leads to the suppression of suffering. As a way to suppress the suffering, Buddha had mentioned the eight-fold paths, i.e. 补峁ａ弓腻峁単颈办辞 尘腻谤驳补岣�, viz. right views, right thoughts or aspirations, right speech, right actions, right living, right exertion, right recollection and right meditation. These eight-fold paths lead the people to a virtuous life.^[13] The Buddhism insisted on five 艣墨濒补蝉, which were prohibition of injury to and destruction of life, of theft, of sexual impurity, of falsehood and of intoxicating liquors. Besides these, five more precepts were added for the Buddhist priests, viz. prohibition of eating at forbidden hours, of attending worldly amusements such as dancing, song, music and shows, of the use of unguents and ornaments, of the use of a large or ornamented couch and of the receiving of gold and silver. ^[14]

The Buddhism is broadly divided into two branches; one is H墨nay膩na and the other is 惭补丑腻测腻苍补. The ultimate goal of the H墨nay膩na is the cessation of kle艣as, i.e. destructive mental states including ignorance, attachment and aversion and the attainment of the sublime state of 苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺 practising the 补峁ａ弓补尘腻谤驳补. The 惭补丑腻测腻苍补 aspires to the Buddhism by means of the boddhisattva path, i.e. remaining in the cycle of rebirth.⁶⁹ Though the Buddhism maintained a little connection with the Hinduism, but did not acknowledge any personal god or Supreme god, neither bhakti nor the metaphysical and abstract knowledge of god. A highly developed ethical life was regarded as the sole means of attaining salvation in the Buddhism.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

Max M眉ller, F., The Sacred Books of the East, Vol.10, p. 93

[2]:

Radhakrishnan, S. (ed.), The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. I, p.150

[3]:

Vide, Hazra, R.C., Op. cit., p.194

[4]:

Vide, Bhattacharyya, H.(ed.), The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. IV, p.36

[5]:

Vide, Hazra, R.C., Op. cit., p.194

[6]:

Vide, Bhattacharyya, H.(ed.), Op. cit., Vol. IV, p.37

[7]:

Vide, Hazra, R.C., Op. cit., p. 195

[8]:

Vide, Bhattacharyya, H.(ed.), Op. cit., Vol. IV, p. 39

[9]:

Vide, Max M眉ller, Op. cit., Vol. 10, p.154

[10]:

Vide, Hazra, R.C., Op. cit., p. 196

[11]:

Vide, Ibid.

[12]:

Vide, Kane, P.V., Op. cit., Vol. V, Part-II, p. 939

[13]:

Vide, Ibid., Vol. V, Part-II, pp. 939-940

[14]:

Vide, Ibid., Vol. V, Part-II, p. 943⁶⁹ Vide, Ibid.