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294 CHAPTER V NATURE OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD Nyaya-Vaisesika system takes a realistic attitude towards the universe and adopts the common-genge-view in explaining the world phenomena. Not going beyond the common-sense-experience, the joint-system takes the objects of the universe as they are, and rightly believes in the existence of the close correspondence between the order of our thought and the order of the external reality. The existence of the The existence of the external world is independent of our consciousness, in so far as its 1 existence is prior to the existence of, and is a condition of the possibility of, our mental phenomena. The discussion on the nature of the physical world, therefore, is mainly based on the experience of our mental life (laukika-pratiti) and the usage of the objective world for practical purposes (laukika-vyavahara), even though it might be necessary to assume or infer certain transcendent l conditions (e.g., the deserts of the self) in order to explain the modes of combination of the atoms. Therefore, the Nyaya-Vaig sika system broadly divides reality into 1. Princess of Wales Sarasvatibhavan Series, Vol. I, Pagos 33-34.

F 295 self (cetana) and non-self (acetana). These two realities stand to each other in a certain relation of causal sequence. Neither of the two depends upon the other for its existence, but there does exist a peculiar relation between them in so far as the existence of the cetana element is manifested through the operation of the acetana aspect. Although these two are opposite entities, they co-operate in such a mooth manner that our life and our dealings with the world are harmonized, About the reality of the physical world, there are different views mongst the Indian philosophical systems. The Carvakas are of the opinion that there are only four elements, namely, earth, water, fire and air which constitute the entire universe. Every object is ultimately a product of these elements. Akasa is considered to be that which possesses no obstruction, and perhaps, therefore, includes 'Dik' within it. Atman is nothing but an organism, or a senge-organ, or a vital air, or the Manas, endowed with the quality of consciousness, which is nothing but a property of matter generated under certain conditions, just as grains of rice acquire by fermentation, the power of intoxication. Not believing in any transcendental world religion, or morality, the Carvakes think that the body is the sole reality, and consciousness cases with the dissolution of the body into its constituent elements.

296 This is the crudest fom of explanation given by the lanation Carvakas about the phenomenal world. The followers of the smmkhya-Yoga system belie ve that prakrti or primordial nature is as real as purusa, but while the ummanifested (avyakta) prakrti is real as an ultimate principle, the same cannot be said of its manifestations (wakta). They pass away for individual purusas with the dawn of the discriminative knowledge that the soul and the embodied self are not identical. But even though phenomena are unreal, prakrti as such is real; and when the process of manifestation, starting with mahat or buddhi and ending in the two parallel series with mahabhutas and indiriyas, terminates, there continues to be a process of multiplication of the constituent elements (gunas) inside the primordial prakrti. The Sankhy a view, therefore, makes a distinction between two orders of reality in the physical universe, namely, in the manifest and in the unmanifest condition. The visible world is thought of as a product of five gross elements, viz., earth, water, air, fire and ether, but in the umanifest prakrti the gross and subtle elements cease to exist, and we have to think only of their strands, 1. Based on Ch. I of Sarvadargana Sangraha of Madhvacary a.

297 sattva, rajas, and tamas, as constituting its nature. It is obvious that the sankhya-Yoga vas primarily interested in the different aspects in which nature appears to us, namely, illuminating, active and stupefying, and that, obviously, this triple aspect was arrived at by a consideration of the ways in which the world of manifestation shows itself. For, according to this particular school, the effect is practically identical with the cause; and unless these three aspects were really present in the original prakrti, they could not have found a place in the manifested universe The Advaita-Vedantin rejects all the explanations except the vivarta or illusory projection guaranteeing no substantiality, and, therefore, no true being, to the physical world. In his view, the physical world has only an illusory reality produced by the false projection of May &. Yogacara system of Buddhism holds the physical universe as a projection of consciousness, but not exactly illusory in character like the 'hare's horn' or the 'skyflower'. For all practical purposes, the world is real though changing every moment; but its origin is to be traced to the operation of the mind, which is the only reality; and though in an ultimate reference everything

298 is vold, yet, compared with the physical projection, the receptacle consciousness (alayavijoms) is relatively more real. Our major field of discussion regarding the physical universe, however, is in relation to the NyayeVaiaesika system which deals with all the forms of gross matter in the most natural way so as to satisfy the common-sense of man and be in agreement with the actual reality and the conventions of the external world. Like almost all other Realistic schools, Nyaya-Vale sika attaches much more importance to the material world. The only non-material entity here is the Atman which alone is conscious. All the rest are jada and represent the various phases of the objective world. Hence we may say that the place of objective realities in Nyaya-Vai d蓹 sika is as important as that of the Atman. But at the same time we should remember that the Cetans aspect is in no way less important. The constituents of the physical world, according to Dr. Umesh Miara, are the eight forms of matter --five atomic and three ubiquitous in nature--and their qualitie Matter, in its atomic or discrete form, consists of (1) the four productive elements, called bhautika promanus, which :

299 enter into the composition of the insensate world, and (2) the non-bhautika pramam, called manas, which, conceived as an eternal substance and associated with 1 the individual self (jivatman), helps in the organization of the productive matter into structures or physical organism capable of experiencing pleasure and pain under the stress of moral necessity and retributive justice. The other three ubiquitous forms of matter are: akasa (other), kala (time) and dis (dik) which are the eternal background of the creative process. All these, together with their qualities, form what is called the physical world. But in view of Dr. D.N. Shastri, the four substanc蓹 s--earth, water, fire and air--constitute the matter. There are five more substances--ether, time, space, manas and soul--which are eternal. In as much as they are substances they possess quality and other properties, but still they are not material or physical substances. According to him if the last four eternal substaness (1.e., ether, time, space and manas) are included in matter simply because they are substances and possess qualities, or because they are inherent causes of some of the qualities, why should the soul also not be 1. Gautama, Nyaya Sutra, III, 2.60. 2. Dr. Umesh Misra, Conception of Matter According to Nyaya-Vai se sika, Page 58.

: 300 regarded material for the same reason? seme reason? The eight substances, in fact, have never been grouped together in the Nyaya-Vais sika, and not one property common to all the eight substances has been given in the NyayaVaige sika works, or can even be conceived except the negative one, 1.e., of having no knowledge. This conception of matter is, therefore, a misconception, and quite alien to the Nyaya-Vaige sika. 1 Though the idea of dividing the physical world into eight forms (earth, water, fire, air, other, kala, dik and manas) has been criticized by Dr. D.N. Shastri, yet we would like to take side of Dr. Umesh Misra because the Nyaya-Vaise sika system represents the realistic view and adopts the stand-point of the common man that the physical world, as it appears to our external senses, must be accepted as real. That is why that the joint system furnishes us with a systematic account of the different elements of the universe together with their differentiating qualities and their method of combination. By matter we understand in the joint system as that which is other than the substratum of jnana and has the capacity to possess an attribute. It means that matter excludes the spirit (Atman) and includes all other dravyas 1. D.N.Shastri, Critique of Indian Realism, Pages 136-36.

301 recognized by Nyaya-Valeika. The only non-material entity gike. here is the Atman which alone is conscious. Along with the four productive elements, all the rest four, 1. `., kala, akasa, dik and manas are jeda and represent the various phases of matter. We know that, according to the theory of origination, after the period of cosmic rest is over, succession of fresh products comes into being out of the causal material. The sequence of phenomena observed in creation implies the existence of a factor time (kala). It lies that is technically known as time (kala). behind all worldly processes, creative as well as 1 destructive, which involve succession. It is regarded as a necessary precondition of every kind of action in the physical world. 2 : With creation, the necessity of having a support for the areated objects naturally arises. Objects of limited dimension can be thought of only in relation to a substance of vider extension that may be said to hold them within it, and this latter substance, again, being similarly related to another of still greater extension, and so on, we come at last to an ultimate substance with infinite extension holding within itself all the limited 1. Padarthadharmasamgraha, Pages 26-27. 2. Sankar Misra, Upaskara on Vaise siks sutra, 5.2.26.

and partially extended objects of the universe in common. Such a substance is known as 'akasa'. Dik is also inseparably connected with the cosmic order and refers to the relative position involved therein. It i It is a fact of common experience that two separate objects of limited dimensions cannot simultaneously occupy the same space. They must occupy separate spaces. These created objects are related to one another, as is evident from the notions of proximity, distance, and so on, and this presupposes the existence of a separate substance technically called 'dik'. Thus, kala, akasa and dik, these three forms are the very background of all creation in this physical world. No production of any object can be explained without these forms of matter. The last form of matter, 1.0., manas is an eternal and atomic inanimate element. It brings about a close connection between the Cetana and Acetans aspects of reality and helps the working of the physical world. 3 Without manas it will not be possible to realize the aim 1. Umesh Misra, Conception of Matter, Page 161. 2. Gautama, Nyaya-Sutra, 3.2.59; Kanada, Valeika Sutra, 7.1.23. 3. Gautama, Nyaya-Sutra, 3.2.59. 302

1 303 of creation. From the above mentioned discussion we can say that there are eight forms of matter, viz., earth, water, fire, air, ether, kala, dik and manas. Before we proceed to study the ge eight forms individually, we would like to glance at the common features of these forms of matter. All the eight forms of matter are intrinsically unconscious intrinsi 2 and essentially substantive (dravya). Besides, the 3 important common properties are inherent causality, 1.0., capacity for generating an effect with itself as its cause (svatmany arambhakatva); an individual character in each of its ultimate forms which are eternal (antyavi ce sa vattva); and in its emergent aspect incapability of being destroyed, as an effect, by the cause concerned (karyakarana-virodhi). Individually earth possesses motion which generates velocity (wega), so that when any earthly object moves, it continues to move only because it possessos velocity which helps the existence of motion in that object for a certain length of time according to the strength of the impetus imparted 5 1. Padarthadharmasangraha, Page 36. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid.; Page 20. Sridhara, Nyaya KandlI, Page 21. 4. Kanada, Vaise sika Sutra, 5.2.1; Prasastapada Bhasya, Page 21. 1.17; 6. Vaisesika Sutra, 5.1.17; Prasastapada Bhasya, Page 21.

304 to that object. The velocity once generated in an earthly object produces a series of motions in succession until 2 1 the object stops due to gravity (gurutva). Earth is by its very nature solid, but under certain conditions when it comes in contact with heat and is reduced to atoms (pramanas), a certain attribute called liquidity (dravtva) is produced in it. Earthly particles produce a sengeorgen through which they themselves (through the law of 3 affinity), in the form of an object, become manifest. Water as a distinct entity possesses all the abovementioned qualities of earth except that it is not solid by nature and liquidity is not conditional but naturo natural to it. Tejas (heat, fire) also the possesses above mentioned attributes except gravity. It is due to the lack of gravity that tejas always moves upwards. 7 8 Liquidity is not intrinsic in it. Air possesses oblique or transversal motion (tiryaggati). It does not possess gravity and, therefore, it does not move downwards; and consequently there is nothing to check its movement, which 1. Vaisesika Sutra, 5.1.18; Prasastaped a Bhasya, Page 24. 2. Vaise sika sutra, 2.1.6-7; Prasastapada Bhasya, Page 25. 3. Vaisika Sutra, 8.2.5. 4. Prasastapada Bhagya, Page 25. 5. Ibid., Page 24. 6. Vaisesika sutra, 5.2.13. 7. Ibid.; Prasastapada Bhasya, Page 25. 8. Vaise sika Sutra, 5.2.13.

305 to ever continues to get a fresh impetus from the velocity possessed by it. Of all the elements it is the swiftest. Each of these four substances has got two forms--one eternal in the form of paramanus and the other non-eternal as products (karyadravas). These products are nonexistent before their production and also after their destruction. Prior to the production and after destruction all these four substances have a permanent form. Out of this permanent form every time a fresh production is made. This is at the root of the theory of Arambhaka expounded by Nyaya-Vaisesika. The last bhautika substance is the akasa." The only point it has in common with the other bhautikas is that it provides a sense-organ through which alone its own property can be revealed. Like the other ubiquitous forms of matter it is also all-pervasive and constitutes a basic principle of creation. Amongst the non-bhautikas we have manas which is 6 atomic and possesses motion and velocity like all the 1. Prasastapada Bhasya, Page 21. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid 4. This 5. Ibid 6. Ihid Page 24. Page 22. Page 211 Vaisesika Kanada, Vaisesika Sutra, 5.2.13.

non-ubiquitous forms of bhautika matter with this difference that its motion is the quickest of all. Time (kala) and what may be described as the background of relative position (dik) are recognized to be at the bottom of the entire cosmic order in which aspect they agree with the akasa. These are the most important points of similarities in the various forms of matter. Now, we will examine the specific nature of each of the form of the physical world. which is as follows:- (1) Earth (11) Water (111) Fire (iv) Air (v) Akasa (vi) Dik (vii) Kala (viii) Manas 1. Ibic Page 22. 2. 154 306