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Kautiliya Arthasastra is a store-house of information regarding minerals and metals in ancient India of the pre-Christian era. Before we discuss the technical details in this post-Panini document, the controversy surrounding its authorship and date should be briefly mentioned. Different theories have suggested different dates for the Arthasastra ranging from the fourth century B.C. to the third century A.D. (Kangle, 1986; Mukherjee, 1987). Most scholars however accept the traditional view that Kautilya, also known es Canakya or Visnugupta, who destroyed the power of the Nandas and placed Candragupta Maurya on the throne of the Magadha, is the author of this work. Candragupta came to the throne around 321 B.C., and therefore it may be presumed that the work was undertaken and completed in the later half of the fourth century B.C. Although clear statements are found to the above effect in the text (1.1.19 and 15.1.73), doubts have persisted. We have the following strong arguments favouring the traditional view: (a) the traditional view has been endorsed by many subsequent authors of the ancient India such as Kamandaka (author) of Nitisara), Dandin (author of Dasakumaracarita), Bana (author of

V-2 Kadambari) etc; (b) Arthasastra must have preceded two pre-Christian era texts, the Smriti's of Manu and Yajnavalkya who reproduced extracts from the Arthasastra; (c) Ajivakas, mentioned in the Arthsastra (3.20.16), the Lokayata philosophy (1.2.10) and several oligarchies (referred therein 11.1.4-5) disappeared from the Indian scene by the third century B.C., (5) unlike the later-day Rasa-sastra texts, the Arthasastra mentions 'liquid ore', vaikrantaka a metal, and refers to tin as trapu and not vanca, and to brass as arakuta and not pittala; (e) the tradition of punchmarked coin overseen by laksanadhyaksa (2.12.24) was a pre - Greek tradition (the Greek tradition being engraving of ruler's effigy or the casting of coins in moulds); the counterfeiter used to strike his coins with the help of a hammer and a die bearing design after blanching the blanks in alkali (4.4.20), since the cheaper process of casting was not yet (third century B.C.) in vougue. Weighing various arguments, H. Jacobi concluded and counselled: "without weighty arguments, one must not push aside the unanimous Indian tradition" (regarding the authorship and date of the Arthas stra). We are therefore on reliable grounds while placing Arthasastra in the early Maurya era of the late fourth century before Christ. The text starts (1.2.1) with the premise that four types of knowledge-investigative philosophy, Vedic relgion, economics and the science of politics - sustained the welfare of the Indian society. Artha is the sustenance or livelihood (vrttih)

V-3 of men. From the word vrtti is obviously derived vartta, the three-fold economic activity of agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade (1.4.1). The emerging diversity of arts and crafts (1.3.8; 2.6.2) was also recognised. The means of ensuring the pursuit of philosophy, the Vedic religious life and the economic prosperity is a disciplined and just administration, ever willing to protect the weak and punish the violators of law (1.4.3-16). An ideal state should encourage private initiative. according to the Arthasastra, but under strict administrative control exercised by a central authority. The section on the traiff of duties and tolls (2.22.1-15) suggests that all spheres of economic activity had to be strictly monitored by the state.