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General attitude towards women We have already studied the structure of the society and therefore we now proceed to study the women round whom the family and the domestic activities centered. In the various stories from the Kathasaritsagara we come across faithless, ungrateful, trecherous and untrustworthy women. Women of those days were expert in magic and witchcraft. 260. Nirnaya Sagar p.480. 261. Ibid. 4.3.26. 262. Ibid. 12.7.163. 263. Ibid. 3.5.16 to 49. 264. Ibid. 6.2.174.

348 Also are mentioned wicked, adultrous and cruel women in 265 numerous stories from the book. It was believed that in a house presided over by unchaste woon, fortune (Sri) as 266 well as virtuous women pine (mlayati). At one place it is stated that false-hood was born first and then the wicked 267 woman. The following extracts from Kathasaritsagara give us an insight in to the charater of the women of the age. It is said that one cannot repose any confidence in women for they are full of wickedness. No care for their family touches the heart of cruel women and a woman who has lost her virtue does not distinguish between high and low. Tejaswita the daughter of King Vikramaditya thus meets a handsome person going along the road. Her mind is fickle (chanchala) and 269 unfathomable. It is easy for the wise to measure the height of the Himalayas, the capacity of the sea, even the particles of sand on the bank of the Ganges, but it is not possible 268 270 to understand the heart of women. Indeed the ways of women are difficult to understand. Only destiny knows the mysterious ways of a woman's heart. God himself cannot guard 265. Nirnaya Sagar 10.1.107, 3.6.140, 6.6.73 to 78, 3.5.49, 4.1.80, 12.20.51, 10.4.9, 4.3.49-50, 10.8.101. 266. Ibid. 9.2.317. 267. Ibid. 6.4.73. 268. Ibid. 8.6.120. 269. Ibid. 9.2.337, 6.1.180, 9.2.277, 7.3.103-105, 6.4.73. 270. Mayer J.J. Hindu Tales by Jacobi (translation). 271. Nirnaya Sagar 12.4.236.

272 349 wicked and unchaste women. said It is further, that the heart of a female is a tangledmaze; do not put yourself in the power of a female. They indeed, weep and make you weep%; they tell lies and make you believe them. Cruel in their heart and charming in body, speech and glances, girls resemble a knife inled with gold. Fickleness of mind is an imborn instinct of a woman. They, like prosperous circumstances, are never faithful to any one in this world. Like the evening they display short lived passion (sandhayavatkshanaragentyo); their hearts are crooked like the channels of rivers, like snakes they 274 are not to be relied on, like lightening they are fickle. They generally have these three faults, terrible to the three worlds, flightness, wickedness and a love for the congregation of witches. A woman ever desires fresh man as a female humble bee wanders from flower to flower. No 276 expedient is known for fixing the heart of a woman. Woman is the worst enemy of man. A man who relies upon the words 277 of women, even though of great discrimination, is destroyed. 278 A lascivious woman cannot be restrained even being guarded. 275 272. Nirnaya Sagar 7.2.7 & 8. Also see, Mehta R.L. op.cit., p.285. He mentions 25 different ways in which a wicked woman is known. 273. Ibid. 7.3.37. 274. Ibid. 7.3.142 to 143. 275. Ibid. 7.3.170 to 174. " 276. Ibid. 277. Ibid. 8.6.121. " 278. Ibid. 7.3.92 and 93.

350 Can one fetter a whirl-wind with ones arms, or control a 279 fierce woman and a river. (matta nari nadi chaiva)). A woman named Rajadatta, even though kept well guarded on a lone island was found secretly enjoying an outsider. Still more it is argued that a woman that is addicted to wine 280 (panamatta) cannot remain chaste. It is said that strict control, therefore, should be 281 kept over women. In a moment women fall in love but in another moment their love is scorned. Passion makes them completely blind. They burn with love for a man whom they desire and if their love is rejected unscrupulous are their ways to destroy him. It is said that women are not expected to restrain their speech (strishuwak saiyamah kutah) and therefore a shuvak man who desires prosperity, must not, under any circumstances reveal a secret to a woman. But in spite of this who can 282 keep the secret and wealth from them. In her childhood a woman is under the control of her father, when married her husband protects her and her son 27) yo! 279. Nirnaya Sagar 7.2.8. 280. Ibid. 7.3.92 and 93. 281. Ibid. 10.8.129. 282. Ibid. 1.1.52,53, 10.5.169.

351 looks after her when a widow and therefore independance is not fit for a maiden who is dependent on her relations. It is mentioned that by birth, in truth, a daughter is for the sake of another and is kept for him. The Other side of the Picture 283 This represents the dark side of the picture, which We cannot ignore the other side of her is not objective. character. Not all women are bad, there are numerous honourable matrons who are devoted to their husbands 284 (Bhratrubhaktah). Therefore it is said that there are mango 285 creepers as well as poisonous creepers. In the various stories from the Kathasaritsagara we come across devoted, obedient, chaste and pious wives. Stories of ideal love and affection between 286 husband and wife are also found in the Kathasaritsagara Women were highly regarded. Avirtuous wife would always obey her husband's 287 commands. We also come across women who valued chastity more than their life and have even entered fire to protect it. Incredible is the virtuous behaviour of women of good family who are protected by their own excellent disposition. It is mentioned that chaste women, when their beloved is 288 283. Nirnaya Sagar 5.1.38 to 40. 284. Ibid. 18.5.238. 285. Ibid. 18.5.129. 286. Ibid. 3.1.90, 6.8.4, 6 to 9. 287. Ibid. 9.1.43. 288. Ibid. 1.4.83.

352 attached to another or has gone to heaven, become careles's about all enjoyment and are prepared even to die (marananischittah) Separation from her husband was unendurable and a devoted lady would die of grief. Thus we find that a chaste and devoted lady of a merchant named Illaka from Mathura died because of the grief of separation from her 290 For a chaste lady, it was husband who had gone abroad. believed that nothing is impossible in the three worlds. 291 (a sadhayam Kimasti shen jagatraye). 292 It is said that by her power of chastity (satidharmaprabhava) Damayanti turned a fowler (lubdhaka) into ashes. At another place it is mentioned that by her power of faithfulness the wife of a water-spirit reduced a tree to ashes and again restored it 293 with a look of Kindness. People believed that by virtue of their chastity (satidharmaprabhave) women could return 294 from another world. Marriage as well as conversation with a 295 chaste lady was considered necessary to get rid of a curse. It was also believed that the virtuous and devoted lady (wife) knows the past, the present and the future (trikaladnayani). Priyadatta acquired this supernatural power 289. Nirnaya Sagar 6.7.23 and 24. 290. Ibid. 3.1.90. 291. Ibid. 10.7.65, 67. 292. Ibid. 9.6.326. 293. Ibid. 10.7.41. 294. Ibid. 10.5.201. 295. Ibid. 10.5.320.

355 296 because no one but her husband had any place in her heart. Even in dream she looked on all other men as her brothers and further no guest left her house without being entertained. The hand of a chaste and holy lady (pativrata) acquired such a supernatural power that its touch brought to life a 297 298 dead elephant. and did away with incurable fever. A lady who was very much devoted to her husband gained the power 299 of discernment, (vidyanayana bala). Therefore seculsion of women is a folly produced by jealousy since women of good family are guarded by their own virtue as their chamberlain. A chaste woman is guarded by her modesty and being 301 guarded by it, she guards her husband in both the worlds. In calamities even women of good families do not forget the duties of virtuous wives. It will be clear from the above references that the idea of a woman's highest object of worship was her husband and that chastity was considered as the highest virtue by which they even acquired supernatural power. Polygamy and Co-wives Polygamy was confined mostly to chiefs and ruling princes. All the heroes of the various stories incorporated 296. Nirnaya Sagar 9.2.227,230. 297. Ibid. 7.2.39 to 40. 298. Ibid. 12.4.122. 299. Ibid. 9.6.180. 300. Ibid. 7.2.6 and 7. 301. Ibid. 10.7.46.2, 47.2.

354 in the Kathasaritsagara are mostly polygamous, but generally monogamy prevailed in the other classes of the society. Bigamy also appeared to be prevalent in some of the families of the Brahmana class. Innumerable references are found to the big and crowded harems of kings and chiefs. We may mention the names of a few kings like Naravahandatta, Udayana, Mrigankadatta, Bhimabhatta, Vinitamati, Ugrabhatta, Srutadhara, Vikramasim, Yashakatu, Dharmadhavaja, Hemaprabha, Vikramaditya, Virabhunja, Mahosthasa, Vidushaka, Amaradatta, Suryaprabha, Indi varasena, Tyagasena and Yashakatu. 302 Of the references to bigamy prevalent in the Brahmana class we may mention the name of Brahim, Kashata, Kamalagarbha, Bhava sharman, Bhimabhatta, Srutadhara, Agnidatta, 303 Kandarpa, Kusumayudha etc. But we have also references 304 to polygamous Brahmanas. The Brahmin Purohita Vidushaka is said to have married many wives. The Brahmins named Kshata 305 and Asokadatta had many wives. 302. Nirnaya Sagar 9.4.75, 17.1.5, 12.36.188, 12.7.303, 12.18.3 & 4, 12.22.57,58, 18.5.25, 71.23, 7.5.4 & 5, 7.1.32 & 34, 3.4.203,220, 12.7.24, 8.2.1 onwards, 7.8.143,170, 7.8.54, 12.7.74,41, 12.7.24, 12.2.3,52, 12.5.175,t. 303. Ibid. 12.7.73,143. 10.7.56, 3.6.8,10, 18.4.338,18.4.273. 304. Ibid. 2.2.192, 18.4.273, 18.4.336, 5.2.204,206. 305. Ibid. 3.4.203, 204, 220, 401 and 402.

Ideal Wife 355 The ideal of a wife in those days was that she should be equable, obedient, sweet, fair and waiting on the wishes of 306 her husband. An ideal wife like Devasmita, is said to have 307 disguised herself as a man in order to save her husband. Overlordship of the Husband After the marriage the husband was the god and had the right even on the life of his wife. Wives showed modesty to their husbands. When the husband was to go on a journey the wife touched his feet and circumseribed him. They --also, are mentioned to have performed the auspicious ceremony 308 (kratamangala) for his safe journey and good fortune. On his return they greeted him in a similar way. He in return embraced them. Wife in Separation The Kathasaritsagara states that during the absence of the husband, the wife was not supposed to indulge in any sort of toilet in the form of good dress, ornaments or flowers. She was to have arranged her hair in a single braid and was allowed also 306. Similar view.is expressed in the Kamasutra of Vatsyayana and the Matsya Purana, See HCIP, Vol.III, 563,565. y 307. Nirnaya Sagar 2.5.179. 308. Ibid. 17.2.156.

1 3 358 to put on some small ornament. S Public appearance of Women We have already seen that something like the 'Purdah' system might have existed in India during the 11 th century A.D. and even though there might have been some restrictions on the movement of women they still seem to have appeared in the public. Thus we find that women made love and selected their own husbands, practised witchcraft, received 309 education and were experts in music, dancing, singing and 310 311 painting, took bath at holy places, followed the kings on 312 313 the battlefield, went to shrines and gardens at festival gatherings, attended various parties, and travelled to distant places and countries in ships. 314 They also went to 315 the extent of disguising themselves as males only for some 316 special work of importance, shampoo their father's feet, 317 â € became women asceties and roamed from place to place, went 318 319 for fishing in lakes and rivers, performed asceticism did shopping, worked as Shopkeepers and made many transactions and egen gathered flowers and plucked manges from trees 309. Nirnaya Sagar 3.6.50, 8.5.122,124. 210. Ibid. 3.4.82, 9.2.194, 9.5.125, 9.5.68, 17.4.24, 9.4.241. 211. Ibid. 13.1.86-89, 12.13.8. 212. Ibid. 9.4.231,234. 213. Ibid. 12.5.285. 214. Ibid. 15.8.93, 12.1.22, 11.1.51, 18.5.172,9.2.318, 7.2.37,38. 315. Ibid. 2.5.179. 216. Ibid. 10.10.157. 317. Ibid. 10.10.155,167,12.34.54,55, 318. 16.2.120. 219. Ibid. 17.3.16,17, 1.3.6, 6.2.03, 12.34.262, 17.5.29,32. 220. Ibid. 12.26.31, 3.6.150, 7.9.75.

357 321 outside the cities and inside big jungles. 1