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Inference called Anumana, is one of the most important contributions of Nyaya. It can be of two types. inference for oneself (Svarthanumana) and inference for others (Pararthanumana). Inference can also be classifies into 3 types Purvavat (Inferring an un-perceived effect from a perceived cause). Sesavat (inferring an un-perceived cause from a perceived effect) and Samanyatodrsta (when inference is not based on causation but on uniformity of co-existence)." 107

Theory of inference. Anumiti or inferential knowledge is that knowledge which is derived from another kind of knowledge. It is by invariable concomitance. Some say that there is no separate means of knowledge called inference other than perception. Nyaya oppose-this view and admits inference. They present several arguments in support to admit inference. The inferential knowledge is based on invariable concomitants. There is two types of Vyapti, Purvapaksa Vyapthi and sidhanta Vyapti. Inference of Oneself (Svarthanumana) 'One inference for oneself that svarthanumana, a person having himself repeated observe in the kitchen and other places invariable con-comitance of smoke and fire goes on near a hill and sees smoke on it, there he recollect that wherever is smoke- 12 there is fire. There up on knowledges arise in that this hill was 108

smoke which is in invariable concomitance with fire. This 13 knowledge is called consideration of limgaparamarsa.¹³ From this knowledge follow is that this hill has fire this is call inferential conclusion (Anumiti). This is the process of inference for one self. Inference for the sake of others (Pararthanumana) A person having infer fire from smoke, demonstrate it to others by the employment of a syllogism, is called inference for 14 the sake of others. For example, this hill is full of fire (Parvato vahniman) because it is full of smoke. (). All that full of smoke is full of fire. This hill is full of smoke. Therefore this hill is full fire by these produces consideration of sign and by it Syllogism The name for a collection of five sentences which give rise to knowledge that produces considerations. 109

Parts of Syllogism (Avayava) A part or member that give rise to knowledge which contributes to the perception of an entire knowledge which produces considerations. On the employment of the give sentences at first that arises of knowledge, then the five sentences combine together there arises consideration the parts are proposition, reason, example, application and conclusion. The methodology inference involves combination induction and deduction by moving from particular to particular via generally. It has five steps. i.e., Proposition, reason, example etc are mentioned above. Proposition - ( Pratijna) This is a sentence which comes knowledge it give rise to 15 an enquiry necessitating the mention of reason. It is used. It is used as the first part of syllogism. E.g. The hill is full of fire. 110

Reason (Hetu) The reason is a word which contribute to the production 16 of the entire knowledge that give rise to consideration. Eg. Because it is full of smoke. The reason is two kinds. The affirmative (Anvayi) second Negative (Vyatireki). Example (Udaharana) The example is a word, which will producing knowledge of connection of the form that focus of middle-term occupied by the major term. 17 Eg. All that has smoke has fire as a kitchen. Application (Upanaya), The application is a member which produces consideration. 18 Eg. All that smoke has fire. This hill has smoke Conclusion (Nigamana). Conclusion is a sentence which - 19 relates proposition." E.g. In this hill there is smoke, which is 111

invariable con-comitance with fire. Therefore in this hill there is fire or there for this hill is full of fire. In Nyaya terminology for this example, the hill would be called as Paksa ( minor term), the fire is called as sadhya (major term), the smoke is called as hetu, and the relationship between the smoke and the fire is called as Vyapti (middle term). Hetu further has five characteristics: (1) It must be present in the Paksa, (2) It must be present in all positive instances. (3) It must absent in all negative instances, (4) It must not incompatible with the minor term or Paksa and (5) All other contradiction by other means of knowledge should be absent. The Fallacies of Anumana ( hetvabhasa) may occur due to the following. I. Fallacies of reasons. ( Hetvabhasa) E A person can ascertain truths and achieve victory by exposing fallacies in the argument of its opponent. A fallacy is 112

an object of knowledge which obstructs an inference. In brief it is a defective reason or of fallacies of reason it is five kinds (1) Un-certain or erratic (Savyabicara or Anaikata), (2) The contradictory ( Virudha), The counter balance (satpratipaksa) 20 (4) The un-proved (Asidha), (5) in -compatible (Badhita)² a. The erratic reason - (Savyabicara) The erratic is a reason in which abides a character, the possession of which cause the presence of this alternatives. which produces doubt in the major term the erratic reason. b. General - ( Sadharana) A. reason must be general if it abides in the locus of the major term as well as in that of its absence eg. This hill is full of smoke because it is full of fire. Here the reason 'fire' abides in the region of smoke ( as in the kitchen) as well as in the region of the absence of smoke ( as in the ignited) in iron ball. 113

c. Non-general ( Asadharana) A Non-general reason must be called it abides in the locus of the major term. Non in that of its absence. Eg. The hill is full of smoke because it is full of ether. Here reason is ether, which has no locus. Eather abides neither to the locus of fire nor in that of the absence of fire. d. Non-exclusive (Anupasamhari) A reason is said to be non-exclusive, if it is justified of an example, whether affirmative or negative E.g., All things are impermanent because they are knowable. Here all things is the subjects. II. Contradictory - reason (virudha) The contradictory reason is the counter part of that non existence which constantly accompanies the major term Eg. The hill is full of fire because it is full of water. Here the reason is contradictory in as much as water is the counter part of the non 114

existence of the water, which constantly accompanies fire. It may be also called la reason, which is constantly accompanied by the absence of the major term. III. The Counter balance. ( Satpratipaksa) It is that were a reason which seeks to establish the existent of the major term, then occur the consideration of another reason is a counter balanced one. In fact both are counter balance. Eg. Sound is eternal because it is audible. Sound is not eternal because it is a product. IV. The un-proved reason. It is of three kinds 1. Un-proved on the part of its locus or subject (Asrayasidha), 2. Unproved with which regarded as its own nature (svarupa sidha), unproved in respect of accompaniment (vyapyatvasidda) Asrayasidha. A reason is said to be unproved on the part of its locus, if the characteristics distinguish in the locus doesn't 115

belong to it. Eg. The golden hill is full of fire because it is full of smoke. Here the reason smoke is un-proved, goldness doesn't belongs to hill, Svarupasidha. A reason is said to be un-proved with regard to its own nature, if it doesn't abide in the locus. Eg. The lake is full of smoke Here the reason is un-proved, as smoke from its very nature doesn't abide in a lake. Vyapyatvasidha: A reason is to be unproved in respect of constant. Accompaniment, If its generic nature does not useful in establish its invariable con-comitance with major term proved is in respect of Invariable con-comitance which occurs when there is a condition attached to the reason. Eg. The hill is full of smoke, because it is full of fire nourished by wet fuel. 116

V. In Compatible reason- (kalatita) ( Badhita) An in compatible reason occurs when there is the knowledge of the major term which is assigned the minor term, doesn't really abide in it. eg. Fire is cold, because it is substance.