Preksha meditation: History and Methods
by Samani Pratibha Pragya | 2016 | 111,074 words
This page relates 鈥楳editation in the Acaranga Sutra鈥� of study dealing with Preksha-Dhyana: a meditation technique created by Acharya Shri Mahapragya (Acarya Mahaprajna) in the late twentieth century. It synthesizes ancient Jain ascetic methods, ritualistic practices, and modern scientific insights, appealing to a global audience. The thesis explores its historical context, theoretical foundations, and the rise of contemporary Jain meditation systems.
Go directly to: Footnotes.
3. Meditation in the 膧c膩r膩峁単a S奴tra
The ninth/eighth[1] chapter of the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补 includes descriptions of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补's meditative practices and has thus received particular scholarly attention (Mah膩praj帽a 1978, Bronkhorst 1986, 2000, S膩garamala Jain 2010). These scholars all accept these passages as the earliest evidence of Jaina meditative practice. However, it must be made clear that reconstructing a historical picture of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补鈥檚 meditation is highly problematic due to very scant evidence.
The 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补1 does not provide details of the possible sources of meditative training that 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 may have received from any teacher, unlike the earliest biographies of the Buddha which claim that the Buddha was taught meditative techniques by the teachers 膧岣纺乺a 碍腻濒腻尘补 and Uddaka R膩maputta. Wynne鈥檚 (2007) textual analysis of the Ariyapariyesana Sutta (Majjhima-苍颈办腻测补 26.15鈥�16)[2] points to the precise and specific details of the dialogues concerning these two figures, leading Wynne to doubt that any major fabrication has taken place. The fact that the Buddha appears to be fully conversant with Brahminical ideas adds some weight to the veracity of Wynne鈥檚 conclusions. However, the historical authenticity of these two figures has been fiercely debated by Andre Bareau (1963), Bronkhorst (2009) and a scholarly consensus upon this topic has yet to be reached.
惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 left home at the age of 30 to become an ascetic and proceded to practise asceticism including its meditative aspects. The Jaina tradition, however, accepts the notion of being 鈥榮elf-awakened鈥� (蝉惫补测补峁�-产耻诲诲丑补)[3]; traditionally all 迟墨谤迟丑补峁卥补谤补s are acknowledged to be self-awakened. Those who are said to be 蝉惫补测补峁�-产耻诲诲丑补, do not need guidance in their present life. Due to their innate knowledge from previous lives, they are believed to, not require further training.[4] For this reason, there is no mention in Jaina canonical texts of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 having a teacher or receiving training from others during his lifetime. An investigation will be undertaken of the historical significance of the passages in the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补 that mention 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补鈥檚 meditative practices, and an attempt will be made to show that meditation was integral to Jaina asceticism from early on.
In the eighth chapter, the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2 mentions the meditative techniques that were practiced by 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 during the thirteen years of his non-omniscient period (chadmastha-办腻濒补). Bronkhorst (1986: 31鈥�9) addresses the function of meditation at this early stage. He presents meditative practice as an essential aspect of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补鈥檚 ascetic life and therefore oriented towards the restraint of activity, culminating in motionlessness or inactivity, and finally the inertness of death. The significance of motionlessness in early Jaina meditation is held to be the only cure for suffering and rebirth, since all activity is karma, i.e. action that leads to rebirth.
Bronkhorst claims that a key passage (膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 1.7.2鈥�8, 228鈥�53) describing meditation does not discuss meditation (箩丑腻峁嘺) as such, but speaks more of mental attitudes describing the practitioner as 鈥渇ree from activity he knows and sees鈥�, as is also mentioned in 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2.[5] Such attitudes, he suggests, are conducive to liberation and freedom from suffering because they are attitudes that bring about restraint of activity. The passages he takes from 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2 relate to 鈥減reparation for fasting unto death鈥� (蝉补峁僱别办丑补苍腻)[6] and 鈥渇asting unto death鈥� (蝉补峁僼丑腻谤腻).[7] These texts describe aspects of the Jaina art of dying in a meditative state. The final stage of abandonment of the body is attained in this practice. Naturally, this practice occurs only during the period immediately prior to death and is not a regular practice undertaken by ascetics.
Although a system of meditation, as such, is not described in these passages, unlike the detailed and systematic presentation of meditation in early Buddhist texts that Bronkhorst points to, the use of the phrase 鈥渢o know and to see鈥� (j膩峁嘺ti 辫腻蝉补迟颈) is very significant in this respect.[8] Knowledge (箩帽腻苍补 or 箩腻峁嚹乼颈) and perception (诲补谤艣补苍补), which is traditionally considered synonymous with seeing (辫腻蝉补迟颈), are two important qualities of the self. The concept of perception itself that is found in this text is discussed in chapter 4 below on 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补.
The 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2 records the practice of perception as a part of asceticism in the following way.[9]
Examining the whirlpool, a man, versed in the sacred lore, should keep off from it. Leaving the world to avert the current (of sin), such a great man, free from acts, knows and sees the truth; examining (pleasure) he does not desire them[10] (tr. Jacobi, 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 1.5.6.2.)
Desireless, giving up the world, and ceasing to act, he knows, and sees, and has no wishes because of his discernment; he is called houseless[11] (tr. Jacobi, 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 1.2.2.1.)
In the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补, however, there is no further discussion about 鈥渒nowing and seeing鈥� as features of consciousness. The commentaries do not throw any light on it as a practice of meditaion. But according to a later text 顿丑测腻苍补 艢补迟补办补 of Jinabhadraga峁嚹� (6th c. CE) knowledge (箩帽腻苍补) and meditation (诲丑测腻苍补), in the sense of attention or attentive focus (诲丑测腻苍补), are both features of consciousness.[12] This notion is available in 厂补谤惫腻谤迟丑补蝉颈诲诲丑颈 of Akalanka (9th c. CE), which states that 鈥渙nly the knowledge that shines like an unflickering flame is meditation鈥�.[13] A similar idea is presented in 罢补迟迟补惫腻苍耻艣腻蝉补苍补尘 by R膩masena (10th c. CE), which describes that the knowledge is many-pointed concentration (vyagra) and meditation is one-pointed concentration (别办腻驳谤补).[14] These examples prove that knowledge and meditation are two different states of the same consciousness. Mah膩praj帽a, however, uses these concepts of knowledge (箩帽腻苍补) and perception (诲补谤艣补苍补) as foundational elements in the formation of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 in an attempt to establish or trace its roots within the Jaina tradition.
The traditional account of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补鈥檚 meditative practice in the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 9 throws further light on the history of Jaina practices of meditation. However, Bronkhorst states that 鈥淸t]he few occurrences of 鈥榤editation鈥� (箩丑腻峁嘺), 鈥榤editate鈥� (箩丑腻迟颈) etc are in 膧y膩r. They are all found in the ninth (in some editions, the eigth) chapter which describes the vicissitudes of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 and may be a later addition鈥� (Bronkhorst, 1986:34). Nonetheless, I would argue that these aphorisms of the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补 are relevant and may describe Mah膩vira鈥檚 practices because they are traditionally considered jinakalpa practices, that is, practices that imitate those of the jinas, including 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补.
These aphorisms are quoted below; they describe the meditative practices undertaken by 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补, in conjunction with penance (Pkt. tava), during his thirteen-year period of asceticism prior to achieving omniscience (kevala-箩帽腻苍补).
Knowing (and renouncing) the female sex in mixed gathering places, he meditated finding his way himself: I do not lead a worldly life.[15] Giving up the company of all householders whomsoever, he meditated. Asked, he gave no answer; he went, and did not transgress the right path[16] (tr. Jacobi, 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 1.8.1.6).
In the resting-places there once, in a night, the single wanderer asked him (who he was and why he was there); as he did not answer, they treated him badly; but he persevered in his meditation, free from resentment[17] (tr. Jacobi, 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2 1.8.2.11).
(Sometimes to avoid greater troubles when asked), 鈥榳ho is there within?鈥� he answered, 鈥榠t is I, a mendicant.鈥� But this is the best law: silently to meditate, even if badly treated[18] (tr. Jacobi, 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2 1.8.2.12).
The above mentioned passages present the lone wandering jina鈥檚 mode of practice (jinakalpa). Here the non-omniscient (chadmastha) 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 is stated as meditating in remote places, away from householders, females, in silence, completely engrossed in meditation which is an important feature of the jina-kalpa mode. This practice is different from the elders鈥� mode of practice (sthavira-kalpa), where Jaina ascetics stay in the midst of society and play a pivotal role in enhancing religious practices among members of the lay community.
膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2 1.8, also contains a long description of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补鈥檚 solitary meditative method of 迟谤腻峁璦办补 or 鈥榰nblinking鈥� fixed gaze meditation. It says:
Then he meditated (walking) with his eyes fixed on a square before him of the length of a man. Knowing (and renouncing) the female sex in mixed gathering places, he meditated, finding his way himself: I do not lead a wordily life. (tr. Jacobi, 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 1.8.1.4-5).[19]
Jacobi鈥檚 Interpretation of Walking Meditation
According to Jacobi鈥檚 translation, the 蝉奴迟谤补 1.8.1.4-5 presents a meditative practice of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 which he construes to be a form of walking meditation. He is, however, unable to translate the term 鈥�迟颈谤颈测补产丑颈迟颈峁�鈥� in the 蝉奴迟谤补.[20] The type of meditation Jacobi describes is closest to the Jaina ascetic practice of vigilance while walking (墨谤测腻-蝉补尘颈迟颈)[21]. Jaina ascetics strictly follow the rule of 颈谤测腻-samiti, that is, walking carefully. This occurs even today in the practice of Jaina ascetics. In the above passage, Jacobi follows the meanings given of this passage in the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-肠奴谤峁噄 (9th c. CE) (pp. 300鈥�301) and the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补惫峁泃迟颈 of 艢墨l膩峁卥a (9th c. CE) (pp. 274). It is evident that due to lack of knowledge of other traditional sources such as the 叠丑补驳补惫补迟墨-惫峁泃迟颈, Jacobi鈥檚 interpretation of the type of meditation this passage describes differs from that of Mah膩praj帽a.
Mah膩praj帽a鈥檚 Interpretation of Fixed-gaze Meditation (迟谤腻峁璦办补)
Mah膩praj帽a translates and interprets the following passage (膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补1, 1.9.1.5) in a different way: 鈥湶巡钩竽灞鼓� meditated internally 鈥榝ixing his eye on the wall in front for the quarterly period of the day鈥欌�� (膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-bh膩峁am2, 9.14, fn. p. 508). He notes that a similar 蝉奴迟谤补[22] explains the process of fixed-gaze meditation (迟谤腻峁璦办补) in 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补1 2.125. To support his translation, Mah膩praj帽a says, 鈥渢he commentator of the 叠丑补驳补惫补迟墨-蝉奴迟谤补, Abhayadeva S奴ri (12th c. CE), has also interpreted the word tiryagabhitti (Skt. tiryac-bhitti) as rampart (辫谤腻办腻谤补), or the wall of the mound, or the rock (叠丑补驳补惫补迟墨-蝉奴迟谤补, commentary, pp. 543鈥�44)鈥� (膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-bh膩峁am2, 9.14, fn. P 508). 罢谤腻峁璦办补 is a well-known ha峁環a-yogic practice, presented in the (15th c. CE) Hindu yoga text 骋丑别谤补峁囜笉补-蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 (1.52).[23]
Both Jacobi and Mah膩praj帽a鈥檚 interpretation of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补鈥檚 meditative practices refer to techniques that are widely known in Indian yogic traditions. In the context of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补, it is hard to say in which practice he was actually engaged, because the commentary is much more recent than the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补 itself.
Furthermore, Mah膩vira also engaged in meditation-with-fasting:
[H]e did not drink for more than two months, or even six months, day and night without desire (for drink). Sometimes he ate stale food. Sometimes he ate only the sixth meal, or the eighth, the tenth, the twelfth; without desires, persevering in meditation[24] (tr. Jacobi 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补3, 1.8.4. 6鈥�7).
Fasting is a notable Jaina practice. However, 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补 does not provide full details of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补鈥檚 fasting but the later text 膧惫补艣测补办补-狈颈谤测耻办迟颈 (膧惫补艣测补办补-niryukti1, 528鈥�536.) discusses his fasting at length. It seems that fasting with meditation was a central part of Jaina asceticism.
In the next sutra, the duration of Mah膩vira鈥檚 meditation is discussed:
In these places was the wise 艣谤补尘补峁嘺; for thirteen long years he meditated day and night exerting himself, undisturbed, strenuously[25] (tr. Jacobi 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补3, 1.8.2.4).
According to Bronkhorst, the long period of meditation described in the above passage (thirteen years) is without parallel in the later developed tradition of the 鲍迟迟补谤腻诲丑测补测补苍补-蝉奴迟谤补 (Bronkhorst, 1986:34). In contrast to the thirteen years of meditation found in the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补, 鲍迟迟补谤腻诲丑测补测补苍补-蝉奴迟谤补1, 26.12,18 documents time-bounded and ritualised meditation of one-quarter of a day or night (prahara) and the 罢补迟迟惫腻谤迟丑补-蝉奴迟谤补 (9.28) mentions a forty-eight minute (尘耻丑奴谤迟补) time-limit.
It may be possible that because of the intense vigilance (apramatta) practised by 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补, associated with his always being awake, he could be construed as being in a constant meditative state for thirteen years.
And 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 meditated (preserving) in some posture, without the smallest motion; he meditated in mental concentration on (the things) above, below and beside, free from desire[26] (tr. Jacobi 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补3, 1.8.4.14).
He meditated, free from sin and desire, not attached to sounds or colours; though still an erring mortal (khadmastha), he wandered about, and never acted carelessly[27] (tr. Jacobi 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补3, 1.8.4.15).
Mah膩praj帽a translates this passage differently from Jacobi鈥檚 translation above. He considers the 鈥渄irections鈥� above, below, and beside to refer to different parts of the body, the lower, upper and middle, respectively,[28] as opposed to the cardinal directions referred to in Jacobi鈥檚 translation. According to Mah膩praj帽a, this practice possibly consisted of the perception of the body (办腻测补-惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻) or 鈥渋nsight meditation on the body鈥�, a term that is also used for a particular type of Buddhist meditative practice (膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-bh膩峁am2, 145). For Mah膩praj帽a, this passage suggests that the seeds of 惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻 mediation are also available in the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补.
Whichever translation is preferred, from the above passages of the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补, we can conclude that 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补鈥檚 method of meditation consisted of perception and concentration in isolated places, concentration that sought to be unaffected by physical surroundings as well as emotions.
What is noticeable in the passages of 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2 1.8 is, firstly, that 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 was singularly engaged in meditative practice during these thirteen years. He is described as always being wakeful and ever-vigilant. This type of practice is referred to in the later tradition as the solitary mode of the jina, or intense meditation (jinakalpa-诲丑测腻苍补), a type of meditation in which the practitioner is so intensely engaged that he becomes oblivious to external circumstances. Here, meditation is an activity that leads to a state of motionlessness, which is a state of inactivity of body, speech and mind, essential for eliminating karma (1986:37-38). Bronkhorst compares such types of ascetic meditation practices in the Hindu scriptures, the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 and the Bhagavad G墨t膩.[29] He claims (1986: 51-59) that, at some points, Hindu meditative practices described in the Bhagavad G墨t膩 and the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 and Jaina meditative practices in the 腻驳补尘补 literature have parallel connotations, and it is evident that motionlessness is a key practice of meditation in both traditions. If we accept that the Jaina scriptures predate these Hindu texts, it is possible that the direction of influence may be from Jaina sources to these Hindu texts.
A more developed discussion of 惭补丑腻惫颈谤腻鈥檚 meditation is found in a later text, the 膧惫补艣测补办补-niryukti and is discussed in the next section.
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
See footnote 63.
[2]:
Majjhima-苍颈办腻测补, 26.15鈥�16. 鈥業 went to 膧岣纺乺a 碍腻濒腻尘补 and鈥� I went to Uddaka R膩maputta鈥︹��.
[3]:
鲍迟迟补谤腻诲丑测补测补苍补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 9.2. This term 鈥�蝉惫补测补峁冣赌�sambuddha鈥� occurs in the 鲍迟迟补谤腻诲丑测补测补苍补-蝉奴迟谤补 where it is used for one who is self-enlightened. te t墨tauppa峁囜箛ama峁嚹乬ay膩i峁�, logassa j膩峁嘺峁卼i tah膩gat膩i峁�, 峁噀t膩ro a峁噀si a峁嘺峁囜箛a峁噀y膩 产耻诲诲丑腻, hut e a峁卼aka岣嵞� bhava峁卼i. They know the past, present and future ways of the world; they are leaders of other men, but follow no leader; they are awakened, and put an end to mundane existence (S奴trak峁泃膩峁単a-蝉奴迟谤补2, tr. Jacobi).
[4]:
S奴trak峁泃膩峁単a-蝉奴迟谤补1, 12.16.
[5]:
膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 1.5.6.2. 鈥�akamm膩 j膩峁嘺ti 辫腻蝉补迟颈.
[6]:
This refers to the aspirant, after having taken due permission of the preceptor, undertaking the gradual attenuation of the body.
[7]:
Undertaking fasting unto death is called 蝉补峁卼丑腻谤腻.
[8]:
Balbir (2010: xix) notes that the concept of perception is also discussed in the 膧惫补艣测补办补-niryukti and the Nand墨-蝉奴迟谤补 as forming one of the five types of knowledge.
[9]:
Here I have used Jacobi鈥檚 translation while comparing it with the original Prakrit text edited by him. The translations of 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补 part1 by Jaina authors state that the eighth chapter of 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补 part1 is lost. Jacobi鈥檚 eighth chapter is taken to be the ninth chapter (see footnote 63).
[10]:
[11]:
AS2, 1.2.2.1. 惫颈峁嚹� vi lobha峁� nikkhamma esa akamme j膩峁嘺i p膩sai, pa岣峣leh膩e n膩鈥檝aka峁僰hati, esa a峁嚹乬膩re tti pavuccati.
[12]:
[13]:
厂补谤惫腻谤迟丑补蝉颈诲诲丑颈, 9.27. 箩帽腻苍补me惫腻parispand膩gni艣kh膩vadavabh膩sam膩na峁� 诲丑测腻苍补miti.
[14]:
Tatt惫腻nu艣膩sana, 59. 别办腻驳谤补graha峁嘺 c膩tra vai vyagraviniv峁泃taye, vyagram hya箩帽腻苍补meva sy膩d诲丑测腻苍补m别办腻驳谤补mucyate.
[15]:
膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 1.8.1.5 saya峁噀hi峁� vitimissehi峁� itth墨o se tattha 辫补谤颈苍苍腻测腻 蝉腻驳腻谤颈测补峁� na seve iti se 蝉补测补峁� pavesiy膩 箩丑腻迟颈.
[16]:
[17]:
膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 1.8.2.11.鈥�
sa janehi tatthapucchi峁僺u, egacar膩 vi egad膩 r膩to.
av惫腻hite kas膩itth膩, apa岣峣nne 蝉补尘腻丑颈峁�
[18]:
[19]:
[20]:
Cf. Jacobi mentions that 鈥�迟颈谤颈测补产丑颈迟颈峁�鈥� is omitted in his translation. He could not understand the exact meaning of this term perhaps: 鈥榮o that he was a wall for the animals鈥� (fn. p.80).
[21]:
[22]:
[23]:
骋丑别谤补峁囜笉补-蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 (1.52) nime峁nme峁ka峁� tyakt惫腻 s奴k峁alak峁a峁� n墨r墨k峁yet patanti y膩vada艣r奴峁噄 迟谤腻峁璦办补 procyate budhai岣�. avi s膩hie duve m膩se, chappi m膩se, adu惫腻 apivvitth膩. R膩ovar膩yam apa岣峣nne, annagil膩yam egay膩 bhu峁僯e. cha峁弓he峁嘺m egay膩 bhu峁僯e, aha 惫腻 a峁弓hame峁嘺 dasame峁嘺峁�. du惫腻lasame峁嘺 egay膩 bhu峁僯e, peham膩峁噀 sam膩him apa岣峣nne.
[24]:
膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2. 1.8.4. 6鈥�7.
[25]:
膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2. 1.8.2.4. etehi mu峁嚹� saya峁噀hi峁� sama峁噀 膩si paterasa vase, rai峁僤iya峁� pi jayam膩峁噀 appamatte sam膩hie jh膩t墨.
[26]:
膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 1.8.4.14.
[27]:
膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补2, 1.8.4.15. avi 箩丑腻迟颈 se Mah膩v墨re 膩sa峁嘺tthe akukkue 箩丑腻峁嘺峁� 耻岣嶀笉丑补峁� ahe ya 迟颈谤颈测补峁� ca jh膩yati sam膩him apa岣峣nne.
[28]:
膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补1, 2.125. 腻测补迟补肠补办办丑耻濒辞驳补-vipassi logassa aho 产丑腻驳补峁� 箩腻峁嘺颈, 耻岣嶀笉丑补峁� 产丑补驳补峁� 箩腻峁嘺颈, 迟颈谤颈测补峁� 产丑补驳补峁� j膩峁嘺i.
[29]:
There are many similarities in meditative practices in the Jaina and Hindu traditions. Bronkhorst writes: 鈥淔asting to death and stopping the breath, both of which we had come to know as characteristic accompaniments of early Jaina meditation, are also present in the Hindu scriptures. The same is true of bodily motionlessness, which is compared with the state of a stone, of a pillar, of a mountain鈥� (Bronkhorst, 2000: 46鈥�47). Further details are given in the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 [Mbh] (Mbh, 1.86.14鈥�16) where it refers to conquering one鈥檚 senses, abandoning desires and 鈥渞enouncing activity鈥� as the method for achieving liberation (MBh, 12.294.13鈥�18). Briefly stated, such a muni reaches perfection, which is the most important [thing there is], by living in the forest, his food and movements being restrained. The same type of motionless meditation practice is described in the 叠丑补驳补惫补诲-骋墨迟腻: 鈥榮ome wise men say that [all] activity is to be abandoned as evil鈥� (BhG, 18.3).