365bet娱乐

CHAPTER IX ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS SECTION 1. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS. The Paumacariyam furnishes sufficient data about the economic conditions of the people. The conventional description of the Rajagrha (2. 1-14) and references at other places indicate that there was a class of nobles and the rich who lived a prosperous life. They flourished in plenty and abundance. Their big mansions and storeyed building with various rooms beautifully adorned the well-planned towns. The streets looked magnificent with rows of houses on both the sides. There were luxurious gardens as pleasure resorts. Various public displays and exhibits graced the civic life of the people. Reference to sumptuous dishes, costly utensils, confortable articles of furniture, musical performances, dance-recitals and religious festivities indicate the luxurious and happy life of the people. The wealth of precious stones and minerals was no less. Trade piled heavily in big towns. Merchants and caravans are regularly referred to. Cities were noisy with the din and bustle of the markets. Thus there prevailed a happy state of affairs. But there were the poor also who led an unfortunate life. The Paumacariya refers to people who were devoid of any wealth (75.60). Stricken with poverty they led a miserable (88.6) life. Some lived merely on the pursuits of gathering grass and wood (103.30. Some pulled on with begging and remnants of dinner (13.14). The poor satisfied themselves during the winter by sitting around the fire because they could hardly afford anything more than scanty clothing (31.43). In absence of sufficient clothing the skin of their bodies got wrinkled and blustered (31.43). The less fortunate had to be content with his but. His sole property was an earthen pot and an earthen dish (33.85). Thus we find that the poor and the unhappy people formed not a minor part of the society and there was a great contrast between the life of the rich and the poor. Generally there was peace but occasional battles ad wars became the cause of distress and a large scale bloodshed. Evil elements like thieves, robbers, dacoits, plunderers and criminals at times tormented the social life. The want of proper medical facilities could not save 29

450 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM people from fatal results of widespread epidemics. draughts also brought anxiety to the people. Famines and The economic sustenance of the nation depended on various occupations and professions of different grades. The Paumacariya mentions them as follows: Agriculture The profession of agriculture and the farmers are referred to at 14.26; 39.68. In their daily routine farmers used to go to their fields with their implements in the morning and returned in the evening (105.32, 34). The soil was tilled with plough (halakulisa or Kulika 14.51, sira 113.20) which was drawn by the oxen. People knew it that well cultivated land (sukittha 3.45) was necessary for the proper growth of seeds while the sandy or salty land (usara 14.59) was unproductive. The richness of crops (sassa 4.26) depended upon the quantity of rainfall. References to Persian-wheel (arahattaghadijanta 105.40) and well (kuva 35.19) indicate that these were also the sources of irrigation. There are references to lakes (5.56; 15.50; 82.40) and tanks (talaya 3.46) but their application to irrigation is not specifically mentioned. Many crops were grown and there is a reference to the wild crop rice which grew abundantly in forest (dhannam ca rannajayam 41.4). This wild crop is mentioned as growing in the southern country and Sali (99.29), a superior kind of rice in the Kosala country. Other varities of rice specified in the Paumacariya are Vihi (vrihi 4.76), Tandula (33.6) and Kodrava (103.111). Barley is also referred to (Java 4.76; 11.25). The Avantidesa is said to be flourishing with the crops of gram (Canaya), kidney-bean (Mugga=Munga), horse-bean (Masa=Udada), sesamum (Tila) and Tandula (33.16). Mustard (Sarisava 97.10) seeds. are also mentioned. Then there was the sugarcane (Ikkhu 3.111) and a special variety of it, called Punducchu (42.11) which was planted in various parts of the country. Animal Husbandry -Cows and buffaloes are stated to be forming the animal-stock of Magadha (2.2), Vijayardha (3.158), Saketapuri (80.11), etc. They supplied milk and ghee. Rama and Batuka Kapila are mentioned to have a number of cows (80.11; 35.79). Common Thus there is a people also must have been keeping them. reference to a buffalo of a householder (41.55). A certain Grhapati is said to be possessing domestic animal (gihapasukhettaisu 48.79). Then the professional cowherd (govalaya 5.96) is also mentioned. He kept a huge cow-pen and used to sell cows. Oxen are regularly referred to. They formed an important part of the beasts of burden,

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 451 Other Professions:-In addition to agriculture and animal husbandry the economic sustenance of the people depended upon trade and commerce, other independent professions and domestic as well as government service. Various professionals mentioned in the Paumacariya are preceptors, teachers of archery (77.84;39.88; 26.5, 11;14.20;25.19), interpreters of signs, omens and dreams (51.16;7.80), astrologers (17.112), and physicians (110. 27). Goldsmiths and ironsmiths are not mentioned directly but their existence can be inferred from various references to gold ornaments, iron implements and weapons. The references to Sivika, Yana, Ratha, Karapatra, Vasiphala¹ and Phalaka indicate the existence of carpenters. The weaver (Kuvinda 21.1) and the potter (Kumbhara 5. 207) are specifically referred to. Then there were masons (Sippi 78.48-49;102.24) who built houses and mansions. The reference to images reveal the existence of sculptors (28.39;40.11). Painter or picture-drawer is mentioned (1.21). Musicians (64.2), dancers (37.59) and coquettish girls (36.39) are referred to be living on the profession of providing amusement to the people. Natas (acrobats) and umbrella-players (2.5) are referred to as entertaining the people. Then there were the garland-makers (6.175), betel leaf dealers (Tamboliya) wood and grass-gatherers (31.44;103.30), charcoal-makers (14.15), fishermen (14.15;55.42;82.43), hunters (6.139: 39.69), fowlers (49.26) and trappers (14.15). Services: -Besides these independent professionals some people were engaged in private or government services. In the private service nurses (Dhais 97. 11), lady messengers (Dutis 12.53) and maid servants (Cetis 6.11) are worth mentioning. Then there were the Karmakaras, (17.7), Kinkaras (4.60) and door-keepers (28.4). In the government service there were ministers (5.176;31.52), counsellors (77 77,78), ambassadors (14.19), envoys (65.00), officers (14.19), priests (5.31) chamberlains (93.8), Mahattaras (106.7), generals 37.2), policemen (82.48), C. I. D. (26.95) and soldiers (8.41;12.139). Then there were the Gojjas and Caranas (2.103; 85.19,24), i.e. the bards and the eulogisers who were associated with the service of kings. Mineral Products:-The Paumacariya refers to various precious products of mine and sea (jalathalaya 2.10). There are references to Ratnadvipa, the island wherefrom gems were available (14.50; 32.61). The follo- 1. Paumacariya, 65.38; vasi-a carpenter's tool for cutting away the surface of wood,

452 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM wing precious stones (mani 6.29) have been mentioned: diamond (Vajja 3.75), ruby (Paumaraya 6.39); Manikka (2.11), saphire (Indanila 3.132; 14.90), emerald (Maragaya 3.75;22.23), lapis lazuli (Veruliya 3.75;14.90), sun-crystal (Surakanta 3.75; Pusamani 6.39) and moon-stone (Sasikanta 8.265; Candamani 3.132). Then there were the Sphatika (phaliha 2.9, the species of quartz), Kakiniratna (Kagani 4.78, an illuminating gem) and the Karketana (Kakkeyana 3.75). The sea is called a mine of gems (Rayanayara 53.51). Precious gems available from the sea were pearls (Mottiya 3.1; 4.5; 53.108;72.27) and corals (Vidduma 28.116, Pavala 64.10). The shells and conch-shells (Sippi, Sankha 8.258, 259) are also mentioned. All these precious materials were used in decorating ornaments, utensils, buildings and vehicles of conveyance. Various metals referred to are Gold (Suvanna 53.107, Hema 14.53; Kanaya 2.3; 34.58; 64.10; Kancana 3 28; 53.113; Camiyara 26.14, Jambunaya 71.9); Purified Gold (niddhanta Kanaya 20.57); dust of gold (Kanayacunna 6.70 or Kanayara 66.21); Silver (Ruppaya 14.141; 64.10; Rayaya 3.150; Hiranna 3.68); Copper (Tamba 27.32); Tin (Tava=Trapu 118.8); Iron (Loha 28.115; 77.70, Ayasa 33.37) and Lead (Sisaya 26.50). The reference to Darpana (10.5) indicates that the mirror was prepared from some glittering metal or stone. Mineral powders mentioned in the Paumacariya are Sindura (red lead 2.39 or vermilion); Geruya (the red chalk 12.106; 71.3) and other powders of different colours (dhaukayangaraga 27.33; vicittadhaurasenam 29.3; rangavaliniogam cuppenam pancavannenam 29.2;40.5) The specific rocks referred to are Pandukambala-sila (2.25) and Kotisila (48.103). The former is said to be found on the Meru mountain on which the ablution ceremony of new born Jinas is performed and the latter to have been lifted by Vasudeva Laksmana to prove that he could kill Ravana. Phalihasila or crystalline rock was used in constructing walls (68.9) and staircases (68.12) of palaces. Forest Yield: The reference to charcoal-makers (14.15) indicates that the forests were harnessed for making fuel. The wood gatherers (darukamma 31.44;103.30) perhaps supplied the wood for fuel and furniture. The references to chariots and carts reveal that timber was largely available. Reeds were used for making cane-seats (vettasana 69. 14). Bamboos and Palasa trees were used for preparing vessels and utensils (41.4). Elephants were caught from the forests (94.103). They were employed in army and for the ride of the kings. The reference to

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 453 flywhisk (68.39) indicates that the hair of Yak were utilised for it. The lac (23.22) was certainly a forest-produce of fig trees. Then there were the fruits and spices which largely constituted the produce of the foresttrees. Trade and Commerce:-There are several references to merchants (Vania 2.10;103.9;48.21) and trade (Vanijja 33.96;3.116). The market is denoted by Avana (80.61;35.29). The dealers in liquids, poison (Rasa 14.26, Visa 14.20) and gems (5.33) are mentioned. mentioned. Bhanda (63.64) denotes perhaps the manufactured articles of merchandise in general or the vessels of metal. Besides them, no other article of trade is mentioned. The The Vakataka Gupta Age; Dr. A. S. Alteker (1954) (p. 329) informs us that different varieties of cloth, food-grain, spices, salt, bullion and precious stones were most probably the main articles of internal trade. The capital cities were generally the centres of great business. Rajagrha (2.10) used to be visited by merchants from various parts of the country. A merchant (Setthi) of Gajapura is referred to have gone to Saketpura loading his merchandise on he-buffaloes (63.63). Then there is mentioned another merchant of Kundanagara who (33.66) went to Ujjaina on trade-tour. As far as Trade was carried by two routes viz. land and water. the latter is concerned no specific route is mentioned. There are allusions to water-route in the references to ship (Poa 2.44;3.129) which is called the only saviour of a merchant in the sea. The falling of gems in the sea is also mentioned (94.67;14.106;45.34).Traders travelling by ship are mentioned (5.83;48.21).References to Cinamsuka (102.121), Turukka (2.11) and Dinara (68.32) indicate that India had trade relations with China, Turkey and Rome by sea-routes. Two merchants of Kosambi (55.31) are stated to have gone on trade to the 'parakula' by Janavatta (ship). They had sold their Bhanda (merchandise) and brought gems in exchange. Here 'parakula" should mean the other side of the river Jamuna. It indicates that river were used as an effective water-route. There are refrerences to Sarthavahas (Satthaha) who used to go from place to place for trade and sometimes they had to traverse dreadful forests (adavimajjha bihanayam 14.33). As regards the land routes there are two specific references, viz. Gajapura to Saketa (63.64) and Kundanagara to Ujjaina (33.66). Trading Accessories:-Weighing and measurement of quantity are referred to as Tula (2.90;14.26) respectively. 1. The other bank of the Ganges where Sita was abandoned is referred to as 'parakula (94.53).

454 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM The terms referred to for measurement of length are: Aratni (Rayani 20.88), Hasta (Hattha 101.51), Dhanus or Capa (Dhanu 20.96; Cava 118.86), Goruta (Gauya 3.36), Krosa (Kosa 51.4), and Yojana (Joyana 3.24,151). These measurements are explained as follows in the Tiloyapannatti (I.114-116). Twelve 'angulas' or two 'padas' are equal to one 'Vitasti' and two Vitastis constitute one Hasta. The Arthasastra (2.20) adds four Angulas to two Vitastis to make a Hasta and only two Vitastis make one Aratni. Four Hastas make one Capa or Danda. But the Arthasastra states that four Aratnis are equal to one Danda. Two thousand Capas constitute one Krosa. Four Krosas or four Gorutas¹ make one Yojana. Thus the Yojana is said to be measuring 4 miles (see Shama.). Molla (Mulya) denotes the price (39.69). The prevalence of money transactions is inferable from the mention of wealth in crores and lacs. The Dinaras are mentioned in connection with the mock-selling of Ravana by Angada (68.32). The Guptas are said to have struck gold coins called Dinaras ond Suvarnas². The Conveyances Yana (Jana 17.8) or Vahana (71.17) denoted the conveyance of transport. Sakata (Sayada 26.21; 33路15), the cart or the wagon was used for carrying the load of goods from one place to the another. Purusa-yana (Purisajana 108.43) was passenger car. Ratha (Raha 32.48) was the chariot. It was also called Syandana (Sandana 71.15; 94.54). Yoking of four horses to a chariot is referred to (Cauturaya samauttam 42.3; 94.34). Paumacariya mentions it as a good means of river transport also. Kaikeyi went across the Gambhiira river in a chariot (32.48-49) and Sita chariot was also carried across the river Ganges (94.53) in a drawn by horses. The chariots also formed a column of army. The war-chariot of Ravana is called Maharatha (71.4). drawn by a number of elephants (71.2). It was loaded with arms. and ammunitions. Chariots were drawn in procession on the occasion of religious ceremonies (8.207). Royal chariots were decorated with gold and jewels (53.113; 42.3-4; 8.207). It was Janavatta (Yanapatra 5.83) and Poa (Pota 2.44) were the boats or ships which were rowed on water (2.44; 55.30). It Then there was the litter or palanquin (Sibiya 96.1). was raised on the shoulders of men who carried noble or royal persons in it (3,132). Gold covering and the setting of precious stones on it indicate that it was a conveyance of the rich. 1. Samavuyanga Su. 4 (caugaue joyane). 2. Coins of India, p 45; Vide India in Kalidasa; (B.S. Upadhyaya) 1947, p. 266.

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 455 There are references to Vimanas (aerial cars) supposed to be faring in the sky. They were decorated in gold and equipped with tinkling bells (17.113). They were studded with precious stones (8.128). Anjana was taken to Hanuruhapura in a Vimana (17.113). Ravana took flights in Puspakavimana (8.128). Rama, Laksmana and Sita returned to Ayodhya from Lanka in a Vimana (79.1). Kroncavimana of Srikantha indicates that these Vimanas had various shapes (6.53). Various beasts were employed for carrying loads, drawing vehicles and riding purposes. Elephant was a good conveyance of royal ride (76,113 79.12; 21.97). The similar was the case with horse (32.40; 5.73; 116.3). Both the animals constituted two separate columns of army (52.4). Soldiers (7. 14; 56.44; 70.66) are mentioned as ridig on bulls (Vasaha), camels (Karaha or Maya), bisons (Mahisa) and donkeys (Khara). These beasts were used for carrying the load also. Bison was used for carrying merchandise (63.64). Donkeys. camels. oxen and bisons are referred to as carrying the provisions of war (99.25).