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CHAPTER IV ECONOMIC CONDITIONS鈥擜 word of explanation is needed at the beginning of this chapter. As compared to other chapters, it is clear that information pertaining to contemporary economy is very megre in the Vasudevahindi, the character of the text being basically religious. We get some glimpses of the caravan trade, sea-trade, etc., in the unique story of the trader Carudatta of the city of Campa from the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa This can be said to be the most noteworthy feature in the whole of Vasudevahindi The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa is virtually unhelpful regarding data pertaining to contemporary economy. The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, however, gives some details about ratna-pariksa i.e. 'evaluation of jewels' in the discourse of Vasudeva to prince Amsumanta, which is of a stereotype nature. Nothing beyond this, is available in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa which can be helpful to know economic conditions. PRODUCTION : Professions : Agriculture : Tilling the land was a sin (Karisanarambha) according to the Jaina religion, as this act involved

377 377 injury to living beings¹. Possibly the non-Jaina 2 land-owner himself looked after the farm' or sometimes employed persons (kammakara) to do the work for him³. Ploughing was done with namgala 4 or hala 5. Before the 6 crops were ready for cutting, the farmer had to look after the farm, from where weeds were to be removed and 7 the animals and birds 8 were to be warded off. The various crops and cereals in every day use 12 10 11 were aja⁹, kalamasali ' masa , ordinary sali or 13 14. vihi and nipphava In the case of a farmer it has been said that he raised earthen bunds on all the sides of his farm (keyara-pali) with a view to water his farm during the rainy season 15 dependent on the rains. 鈥� A good crop was always There is an instance referred to 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 86. 3. Ibid., 86. 5. Ibid., 241. 7. Ibid., 86. 9. Ibid., 190. 11. Ibid., 55. 13. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 144. 15. Ibid., 295. 2. Ibid., 30. 4. Ibid., 6. Ibid., 30-31. 8. Ibid., 284. 10. Ibid., 62. 12. Ibid., 2,269, 292. 14. Ibid.%;}

378 when there was a draught of twelve years¹. The use of Persian wheel was known to the people 2%; but how far was it widespread cannot be ascertained. The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa while describing the prosperity of the city of Sakeya, says that the farms around Sakeya, were rich with cattle and provided with arahatta i.e. the Persian wheels ³. The art of gardening was so much developed that it was taken to be a special branch of learning designated as rukkhauvveya 4. Rearing Livestock : Rearing livestock was complementary to agriculture and was practised as an independent profession. The janapada of Amga was famous for its cattle-keepers 6 (pabhuyagomahisa) 5. 7 The supply of milk and other milk products like ghee was done by the govas,i.e. cowherds. 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 33. 2. The transmigration of the soul is compared to the rotation of the Persian wheel (jaijaramarana-rahatta, Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 272]. 3. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, 158b. 5. Ibid., 13. 7. Ibid., 13. 4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 50. 6. Ibid., 182.

379 Many times the rich 1 and the king² owned cattle which were looked after by cowherds appointed by them. The herds were not restricted to that of kine but were also 3 of goats ³ and buffaloes+. Cowherd settlements, usually called gokula, were situated away from the urban settlement 5 because of obvious reasons. Namda gopa's vallahagokula was on the bank of the Yamuna opposite to Mathura. Fowling and Hunting : Fowling and hunting can be said to be one of the occupations followed by the people in forests. A sovaga is described to carry a cage of birds on his shoulder? probably for sale. The hunters killed antelops and elephants 9, the latter for ivory and pearls. and 8 Sometimes people collected the hair, hide, ivory of animals which had died in a natural course 10 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 269. 2. Ibid., 297. 3. Ibid., 278. 4. Ibid., 334. 5. Ibid., 43, 269. 6. Ibid., 369. 7. Ibid., 89. 9. Ibid., 168, 257. 8. Ibid., 190. 10. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 258.

380 The forest tribes also collected other objects of utility available in mountains. The girisambhavabhamda³, which might have included himgulaka geruya and manosila ³, were probably collected by these people only. Other Professions : 2 The Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa in the story of Usabha, describes the genesis of various professions 4. Morals started deteriorating in the times just prior to the birth of the first Tirthakara. The wishfulfilling trees no more yielded the desired object%3B the human beings were not able to digest cereals (osahio) available to them. They approached the king. While wandering in the forest the king noticed the forest-fire and discovered the potentialities of its power to minimise human efforts. He asked his subjects to utilise the energies of fire for household purposes, viz., in cooking, lightening and burning. He also demonstrated how to manufacture vh (P) 1. ibid., 210. 2. Ibid., 209. 3. Ibid., 251. 4. Ibid., 162-63.

389 381 earthen pots and fire them. Thus pottery was the first craft learnt by the human beings. The other four basic crafts were weaving, carpentry, smithy and shaving the hair. The author of the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa states that these five crafts were subdivided each into twenty types. However, these are not specified in the text. Sculpture, painting and the science of jewellery were taught to the princes Bharaha and Bahubali by the king. These, and medicine and trading became known to the people with the passage of time. Allusions to some of the details of these crafts have been made in the course of religion is discourses. Sandy earth was useless in manufacturing vessels 1. The balls of iron after heating, were put in water ². The goldsmith (suvannakara)³, weaver (kuvimda) 4, carpenter 5r 2 (vaddhagi, sippiya, or kottaka) have been referred to. The blacksmith (lohakara) 6 and metal working in furniture? 8 9 utensils and images has also been referred to. 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 343. 3. Ibid., 296-97. 5.Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 61-63, 163. 7. Kanayapayavidha, Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa 4. 2. Ibid., 345. 4. Ibid., 356. 6. Ibid., 163. 8. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 189%; see the section on 'Furniture'. 9. Ibid., 251.

390 382 Jewelling the household objects of everyday use, at least in the case of the affluent, was quite common. Objects worked with jewels include seats 1, 6 utensils ², vehicles ³, ornaments 4, weapons 5, images and 3 ornaments 4, 8 objects of worship?, lamps and bed-steads 9.