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[Full title: Indian Subcontinent; 3: Eastern India (Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Bengal); (1): Harbours and Coastal Settlements (2) Orissa]

228 4.3.1.b. Orissa Paloura The next in the list of coastal settlements north of Maisolos furnished by the Geographia are sites mentioned along the 'Gangetic Gulf.' The first of these settlements is Paloura. Ptolemy refers to it as a town. Paloura of the Geographia is most certainly the modern Palur in the Ganjam Dist. of Orissa (Fig. 37 McCrindle in Sastri 1927:69). The modern settlement is situated on the estuary of the river Rushikulya. Recent explorations in the vicinity of Palur have led to the discovery of Early Historic mound formations (Pattanayak and Pattanayak 1994:51- 54). Preliminary digging at Palur conducted by of the Orissan Institute for Maritime and South East Asian Studies brought to light the Northern Black Polished Ware and a sherd inscribed in Kharosti dated to the 2 nd-3 rd century A.D. (D.R. Pradhan: personal communication). Amrendra Nath, Singh and Behera (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1984:57), exploring the coastal region between estuary of Rushikulya and the eastern fringe of the Chilka Lake discovered at Potagarh, a rammed earth platform extending some 30 metres along the Rushikulya. The fragments of Chinese Celadon pottery found on the platform date the structure between 12-14 th century A.D. The explorers have intepreted the platform as a loading/off loading point for merchant vessels. The consolidated archaeological evidence from the Palur area indicates that this riverine settlement was a significant trading station in Early Historic and later times interactive in coastal and long distance sea trade. The identification of Palur with Dantapura, the famous trade-port on the Kalinga coast mentioned in ancient Buddhist texts has been suggested by Pattanayak and Pattanayak (1994:51-54) who point out that in Oriya the words Palur and Danta are interchangeable for 'tooth." 路 After Paloura, three settlements - Nainigaina, Katikardama and Kannogora are mentioned by the Geographia upto the Mouth of the Manada (River Mahanadi). Nainigaina McCrindle (in Sastri 1927:70) locates Nainigaina at Puri. The other two settlements, Katikardama and Kannagara are equated by McCrindle (in Sastri 1927:70) with Cuttack and Konarak respectively. Obviously McCrindle seems to have been guided by the need to correlate inportant modern settlements located between the Rushikulya and Mahanadi with the three ancient settlements. However, it is suggested here that Nainigaina should be more appropiately identified with Manikpatna, an ancient port-site situated about 50 km from Puri (Fig. 37). A small excavation at this site conducted by D.R. Pradhan of the Orissan Institute for Maritime and South-East Asian Studies has revealed a rich habitational deposit from the 1 st century A.D. to British-Colonial Period (18 th century A.D.). The earliest layers at Manikpatna have yielded evidence of maritime contact in the form

229 of Roman amphorae sherds, imitation Roman lamps (Pls. VII, XI) The recovery of Rouletted Ware sherds and a potsherd inscribed in Kharosti from the early levels also points to Manikpatna functioning as a long distance trade-port in the early centuries A.D. (Pradhan, Mohanty and Mishra 1996:120-123). The location of Manikpatna on the northern shore of the Chilka Lake must have offered good vantage for seagoing vessels to berth safely at this port. Stirling (1825/1990:187-188) writing a geographical account of Orissa informs that the Chilka Lake is seperated from the sea for many miles by a long, narrow strip of sand, seldom more than three hundred yards in breath and discharges its waters by an outfall which has been lately excavated about a mile north of Manikpatnam The situation of Manikpatna on the narrowest point of the sandbar shows its strategic location. - ' Katikardama : Ptolemy places Katikardama after Nanigaina. McCrindle (in Sastri 1927:70) has identified the settlement with Cuttack on the basis that 'the first part of the name (Katikardama)' suggests the connection. However, we may consider here the possible identification of Katikardama with the major Hinayana monastic complex adjoining the village of Salihundam (Dist. Srikakulam, A.P.). The finding of a large number of imitation Roman coins and Roman-like statuary from the monastery indicates Hellenic knowledge of this settlement. The basis of the identification is the discovery of a 2 nd century. A.D. Brahmi-Prakrit epigraph Kattaharama or Kattahara arama - engraved around the neck of a water jar discovered in the chaitya (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1953-54:11-12) of the monastery complex. The excavators take this epigraph as the name of the ancient monastic complex. This monastery, situated on a hillside, is distinguished by the excavators from the modern village of Salihundam below The antiquity of the latter is traced by them to the name Salipetaka (Emporium of Rice?) found inscribed on potsherds, conches and stones of the monastery (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1953- 54:11-12). The village of Salihundam is situated on the bank of the River Vamsadhara and is merely 5 miles upstream of the ancient (Early Historic) seaport of Kalingapatnam (Kalingoe of Megasthenes). So if we are to go by the identifications proposed the estuary of the Vamsadhara would have had, in the Early Historic period, the settlements of Kattaharama, Salipetaka and Kalingapatnam in close proximity. The similarity between Katikardama of the Geographia and Kattaharama cannot be missed. However we know that the monastic complex, situated near Salihundam Village, lies much to the south of its designated location in the Geographia Also it may well be that the potsherd inscribed Kattaharama found in the chaitya-graha of the monastery may have been part of a vessel brought to the site

230 by a devotee from elsewhere We have to await more evidence for the Salihundam monastery being ancient Kattaharama to confidently associate it with Katikardama. Kannagora Next in Ptolemy's list after Katikardama is Kannagora. McCrindle (in Sastri 1927:70) asserts that 'there can be little doubt that we have here the Konarak of modern times' After Kannagora/Konarak the Geographia refers to the Mouth of the Manada This is obviously the River Mahanadi (Fig. 37, McCrindle in Sastri 1927:71). Kottobora This settlement is listed in the Geographia immediately after the reference to Mahanadi mouth. The place name Kottobora shows affinity with modern Cuttack. As pointed out above, McCrindle identifies Katikardama with Cuttack on the basis of ancient-modern place name similarity. This criterion can be equally justified for Kottobora-Cuttack. Furthermore, Cuttack is situated north of the Mahanadi estuary and is thus a better candidate for Kottobora which is also placed by Ptolemy north of the Mahanadi unlike Katikardama which is listed south of the same river. Sipara After Kottobora, the Geographia lists the settlement of Sipara within the catchment-area of the Mahanadi. Following Yule, McCrindle (in Sastri 1927:71) suggests that the Sipara of the Geographia represents the ancient Surparaka. Mitra (in Dey 1925/1985:197) following Gosselin (in Burgess 1882:236- 237), identifies Sipara with the small port of Sipelar at the mouth of the River Krishna. Lassen (in Burgess 1882:236) locates Sipara of the Geographia at False Point on the Orissa coast. In a thought-provoking paper Burgess (1882:236-237) questions the identification of Sipara with Surparaka of ancient Indian texts. Providing detailed textual and epigraphical data, Burgess asserts that the only Surparaka was on the west coast and could be identified with the modern village of Sopara near Vasai (Fig. 32). Since Burgess' wrote the paper delinking Sipara on the east coast with the toponym Surparaka, there is now near unanimity on the identification of modern Sopara with Surparaka of the Jatakas. In consequence, the location of Ptolemy's Sipara remains obscure to this day. However, another important textual source besides the Geographia suggests the existence of 'eastern' Surparaka/Sopara. In the great Sinhalese epic Mahavamsa, which records events in the latter half of the 1 st millennium B.C., it is stated that the prince Vijaya, on a voyage from Bengal to Sri Lanka stopped en route at the port of Suparaka but was compelled to re-embark because of the lawlessness of his followers (Mahavamsa VI.1.46). Burgess, in course of his argument against the

231 existence of an 'eastern' Sopara, dismisses the evidence of the Mahavamsa in the following terms: 'One hardly expects to find Vijaya landing on the west coast of India when on his way from Bengal to Ceylon Surparaka on the west coast, however, was a place of note among the Buddhists long before Mahanamo's time, and, as his ideas of geography were probably not very clear, he may have believed that this place really was visited by Vijaya.' The Early As pointed specifically A recent piece of archaeological evidence suggests that the Mahavamsa may not have misplaced the situation of Supara Surparaka. A convincing contemporary toponym for the 'eastern' Supara can be evidenced in the modern settlement of Saupara situated on the left bank of the river Bagh, an affluent of the Mahanadi (Fig. 37). S.B. Ota of the ASI, in course of explorations discovered two Early Historic riverine mounds at Saupara-on-Bagh (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1983-84:60-61). Historic site of Saupara re-establishes the Sipara-Surparaka connection. out, Ptolemy situates Sipara in the catchment-area of the Mahanadi, between the rivers Manada and Tyndis (the latter identified with the Brahmani). The location of modern Saupara matches the locus for Sipara provided by the Geographia. The Mahavamsa refers to the 'eastern' Saupara as a port. We know that many important early ports on the Orissan coast, such as Palur and Manikpatna, are situated away from the vagaries of the open sea on the banks of navigable creeks, lagoons and rivers. In this context, Early Historic Saupara-on-Bagh have been a riverine port. Stirling (1825/1990:184-185) observes that During the rains the Mahanadi may be navigated as far nearly as Ryepur distant fully 300 miles from the point of confluence with the sea, though the passage is rendered somewhat difficult in the higher points by rocks.' Saupara-on-Bagh, which lies well within the navigable range specified by Stirling, would not have been difficult of access in ancient times by sea-going vessels which probably did not draw the large depth of water modern vessels do. may Mouth of the River Tyndis The Geographia mentions the Mouth of the River Tyndis following Sipara McCrindle (in Sastri 1927:71), following Lassen, equates the River Tyndis with the River Brahmani (Fig. 37). McCrindle's correlation of Tyndis with the Brahmani results from his position that the four major rivers listed by Ptolemy from Manada to the Mouths of the Ganges are to be equated with the four major rivers of Orissa In this regard the correlations are: Manada Mahanadi, Tyndis Brahmani, Dosaron Vaitarani and Adamas=Suvarnarekha. Yule (in McCrindle 1884:334-335) differs, holding that the Tyndis happened to be a branch of the Mahanadi and that the river Dosaron was the =

232 Brahmani, Adamas the Vaitarani and Kambyson, the westernmost mouth of the Ganga was the Suvarnarekha. A scrutiny of the northern Orissa littoral shows that the rivers Mahanadi, Brahmani and Vaitarani split into numerous branches as they approach the sea The estuarine zone from the Chilka Lake to Palmyras Point (mouth of Vaitarani) is webbed with distibutaries. In this context, Yule's identification of the Tyndis as a branch of the Mahanadi would appear to be an arbitary choice. The Mahanadi has many important branches such as the Cajori, Berupa and Chittertola which further sub-divide into numerous arms. The Cajori for instance sends off a large stream to its north called the Deb Nadi and the Harchandi to the south. We have discussed above the evidence for the 'eastern' Saupara situated on the River Bagh, a branch of the Mahanadi. The multiplicity of branches of the Mahanadi and the other major rivers of northern Orissa makes it difficult to relate any one arm of the Mahanadi to be the Tyndis as Yule suggests, particularly when many of the branches are navigable. It would therefore be logical to keep to the position of Lassen/McCrindle who relate the four rivers listed by Ptolemy north of the Chilka to the four major northern Orissa rivers. Mapoura and Minnagara: Between the River Tyndis/Brahmani and Dosaron/Vaitarani, the Geographia situates the settlements of Mapoura and Minnagara McCrindle (in Sastri 1927) does not attempt an identification of Mapoura Neither does Schwartzberg (1992:24) indicate the settlement in his historical atlas. Yule (in McCrindle 1884:335) locates Minnagara at Jajhpur (Fig. 37). McCrindle (in Sastri 1927:71) situates Minnagara a little away from Jajhpur, closer to the sea, at Mungrapur. The place-name Minnagara recalls settlements of the same name located by the Periplus in the region of Sind and western India (Schoff 1912/1974:180). The settlements called Minnagara are held to be those of the Sakas/Scythians who are termed Minn in ancient Indian records (Schoff 1912/1974: 180). Similarly the settlement of Minnagara on the Kalinga coast may have been occupied by Sakas We have ample evidence of the presence of communities of 'foreign' migrants from the north-west of the Indian subcontinent on the Bengal and Orissa coastlands. Seals inscribed in hybrid Brahmi-Kharosti script and belonging to Scythian horse-traders have been recovered from lower Bengal. On the Orissa coast we have evidence of potsherds inscribed in Kharpsti from Manikpatna and Palur (see above). The Murunda dynasty which controlled Kalinga in the early centuries A.D. is purported to have a north-western origin (Das 1985:7- 8) Recently, explorations at Radhanagar close to Jajhpur have revealed evidence of a

233 large urban settlement existing in the early centuries of the Christian Era (Prusty, Mohanty and Mishra 1996:123-127). However, we cannot rule out the possibility of ancient Radhanagar being the base of north-westerners at the time of the Periplus and thus being also known as Minnagara. In this regard it relevant to note that a number of Kushan gold coins have been recovered from the site, indicating connections with north-west India. Kokala between the Dosaron/Vaitarani and Adamas/Suvarnarekha remains unidentified Kosamba/Kosaba: is situated by the Geographia between the Adamas/Suvarnarekha and Kambyson, the westernmost mouth of the Ganges. Yule (in McCrindle/Sastri 1927:71) places Kosamba at Balasore and Lassen at the mouth of the Suvarnarekha. In the Udayagiri Cave inscription of Kharavela there is a mention of a people known as Kusambas (Luders List 1345 in E.I. X).