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Concluding Remarks We have narrated the salient points on the gem minerals as mentioned in the ancient Sanskrit texts. The chronological evolution of the concepts related to Ratnasastra or Indian gemmology is a vast subject which merits further historical research. We have+ presented merely a bird's eye view on the subject. Looking from a late twentieth century view-point it is quite obvious that modern concepts on elements, molecules, physical

VII-77 properties etc. related to minerals were not yet known to the ancient gemmologists. As we would notice later, the concept of was I_S sattva or metal inherent in an ore was evolved in the Rasasatra texts, but this did not amount to conceptualisation of elements and chemical compounds in the modern sense. Gems were classified according to colour which noted to be misleading in many cases, and hence the second property namely relative hardness was noted and utilised for the identification of specific gem minerals. In this chapter we have classified the gems according to hardness and discussed the same in that order of decreasing hardness, from diamond to pearl. In the case of samples supposed or expected to be diamond, specific gravity was considered to be an important property in view of the possible contamination with heavier minerals such as zircon. But it is doubtful whether accurate measurements of the specific gravity of gems were made in ancient India. Al-Biruni attempted some measurements (5.M.R. Ansari, 'On the Physical Researches of Al-Biruni, Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol. 10, no. 2, November 1975, pp. 198-217). pp. 198-217). The phenomenon of birefringence dvi chhava was known, but the concept of refractive index had not yet been evolved. Most of the authors of the Ratnas astra texts believed in, and recorded, the myth regarding the origin of the gems from differe

VII-78 parts of the body of the slain demon Bala. Varahamihira also mentioned about these myths, but it is doubtful whether he believei in them. In his Brhat Samhita he hinted at a more scientific explanation: the "Gems, they say, were born of thebones of the demon Bala, white others state that they were born of sage Dadhici, yet others. declare that the wonderful variety of gems is caused by the characteristic qualities of the earth" kecit bhuvah svabhavad 鈥�vaicitryam prahuh upalanam | (BS. 80.3) Varahamihira did support fresh thinking on scientific matters. This is evident from his bold advocacy for the modem theory of eclipses, negating the myth of Rahu. However, he was much too respectful towards the ancient traditions to defy them absolutely. He also believed in astrology (besides astronomy) and prognostication. Thus, it is not surprising that his suggestion regarding the gems arising out of geological forces (rather than mythical events) was not seriously pursued either by himself or by his followers. To make matters worse, the casteist approach towards categorisation and use of gems became more entrenched with the passage of time.

REFERENCES VII-79 Agastimatam nama ratnasastram, compiled by Ram Das Sen, Calcutta 1883. Agastimata (Agastimata), with a French Translation included (See Finot).. Agastiya Ratnapariksa (ARP) with a French Translation (See Finot). Agastyasamhi ta Ratnapariksa ca, edited by Krishna Prasada Bhattarai, Kathamandu VS 2020; alos see Rau, Wilhelm, Die Brennlinse in alten Indian, Wiesbadan 1983). Amarkesha of Amarasimha, with Ramasrami Commentery, NSP, Bombay, 1944; also see Amarkosa, Selections by Deshmukh, C.D., Uppal Fublishing House, New Delhi, 1981. Angavijja Prakirnaka, An ancient Jaina text, Prakrit Text Society, Varanasi, 1957. Arthasastra (AS), of Kautilya, edited in three volumes by Kangle, R.P., Motilal Varanasidass, Delhi, 1986. Bauer, Max, Precious Stones, two volumes, Dover Publications, New York, 1968. Brhat Samhita (BS) of Vafahamihira, edited and translated by Bhat, M.R., 2 volumes, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1987. Brown, J.C. and Dey, A.K., Mineral Wealth of India. Caraka Samhita, edited and translated by Sharma, R.K., and Dash, B., Chowk hamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, two volumes, 1983.

VII-80 Dana, E.S., A Textbook of Mineralogy, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1961. Danielou, Alain, Shilappadikaram (The Ankle Bracelet) by Prince Ilango Adigal, London, 1967. Finot, Louis, Les Lapidaires Indians, Paris, 1896, French translations with original texts of Buddhabhatta's Ratnapariksa, Varahamihira's Brhatsamhita, Agastimata, Navaratnapariksa, Agastiya Ratnapariksa, Ratnasangraha, Laghu Ratnapariksa and Manimahatmya. Garuda Furana (Garuda-purana), Translated and Annotated, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1978, Part I, Chapter 68-80 on gems. Kamandakiya Nitisara, edited by Mitra, R.L., Calcutta 1884. Kamasutra, of Vatsyayana, witn Yasodhara's Jayamangala, Varanasi, 1929. Laghu Ratnapariksa, see Finot. Manasara, Translation by Acharyya, P.K., Allahabad, 1933. Manasollasa (Manasollasa), of Somesvara, Gackwad Oriental Series, 1925, 1939. Manimanatmya, see Finot. (Manimala), in two volumes Manimala compiled from Ratnasastra texts by Tagore, S.M., Calcutta 1879. Nahata, A., and Nahata, B.L., Thakkura Pheru Viracita Racnapariksadi Sapta Grantha Samgraha, Rajasthan Oriental Series, Jodhpur, 1961 (published by Jinavijaya Muni) and Prakrata Jaina Sastra Sansthan, Vaisal, 1976.

VII-81 Nassau, K, 1983, The Physics and Chemistry of Colour-Fifteen Causes, John Wiley and Sons, New York. Navaratna-pariksa (Navaratnapariksa), see Finot. Nitisara, see Kamandakiya. Pheru, Thakkura, see Rayanaparikkha and Nahata. Raja-nighantu, of Narahari, Anandasrama, Sanskrit Series, No. 33, Pune, 1896. Rasa-Ratna-Samuccaya (Rasaratna-samuccaya), of Vagabhatacarya, translated and edited by Joshi, D., Indian National Science Academy, Delhi, 1987. Ratnapariksa (Ratna-pariksha), of Buddhabhatta, see Finot. Ratnarahasya, a treatise on diamonds and precious stones, edited by Ram Das Sen, Calcutta, 1884. Ratnasamgraha, see Finot. Rayanaparikkha (Rayanaparikkha), of Thakkura Pheru, edited and translated by Samma, S.R., Viveka Publications, Aligarh, 1984. Samarancada Sutradhara, of Bhoja, Gaekwad Oriental Series, two volumes, 1925. Sama, S.R., 1984, see Rayanaparikkha. Shastri, A.M., India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahami hi ra, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1969.

VII-82 Shi lappadikaram (The Ankle Bracelet) by Prince Ilango Adigal, translated by Alain Danielou, London, 1967; Chilappadi haram (Adi Tamil Mahakayya) of Ilango Adihal in Hindi, translated by S.S. Raju Naidu, and S.N. Ganesan, Madras, 1979. Shivataltva - Ratnakara, of Basava of Keladi, cited by Sama, S.R. Skarda Purana, the chapter on Manilaksana Wiedemann, Eilhard, Aufsatze zur Arabischen Wissenschaft gesischte. Yukti Kalpataru, of Bhoja, edited by Sastri, I.C., Calcutta Oriental Series, Calcutta, 1917.