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From the early age of human civilization people started thinking about protection from any kind of danger and this kind of thought initiated the need to construct fort [i.e., durga] around the residence. The advancement in the field of weaponry, which results in the development in the enemy's side, had a considerable influence on the design and development of fortification.

The architecture of fort [i.e., durga] and fortification get importance in the pre and protohistoric periods.^[1] Vedic literature has thrown light on the constructions of stone and iron forts.

The 峁欢惫别诲补 has references about the forts made of:

1. stone (补艣尘补尘补测墨)^[2] and
2. iron (腻测补蝉墨).^[3]

It also informs about the 艣补迟补产丑耻箩墨 fort, i.e., fort with hundred walls.^[4] The Yajurveda has referred to the word 尘补丑腻辫耻谤补 which means a great fortress. The Atharvaveda too mentions about the vapra ramparts. In the 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉 also references are made about pura and 尘补丑腻辫耻谤补.

In the excavations of Mahenjodaro, the fortified city comprising of a contingent of eleven main buildings is discovered.

These buildings are:

1. 辫谤腻办腻谤补 (rampart or city wall),
2. vapra (mud foundation),
3. gopura or 诲惫腻谤补 (city gate) with 补峁�峁�腻濒补办补 (towers),
4. 尘补丑腻辫补迟丑补 and patha (broad roads),
5. 谤腻箩补辫谤腻蝉腻诲补 (royal palace),
6. 诲别惫补驳峁沨补 (temple),
7. 蝉补产丑腻驳峁沨补 or 腻蝉迟丑腻苍补-尘补峁囜笉补辫补 (audience hall),
8. 蝉补峁僩丑腻驳腻谤补 [蝉补峁単丑腻驳腻谤补] (guild hall),
9. 办辞峁ａ弓丑腻驳腻谤补 (granary),
10. 辫耻峁�k补谤颈峁嚹� (great pond) and
11. 惫颈辫补峁噄驳峁沨补 (market).^[5]

This architectural plan of the city established a norm which was later followed in a large extent during the historical periods. Apart from the Vedic texts, the 惭补苍耻蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, the 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺, the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 and many of the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉 have stated on the forts and fortification.

According to 惭腻苍补蝉腻谤补, the durga, i.e., fort is called as:

1. 艣颈产颈谤补,
2. 惫腻丑颈苍墨尘耻办丑补,
3. 蝉迟丑腻苍墨测补,
4. 诲谤辞峁嘺办补,
5. 蝉补峁僾颈诲诲丑补,
6. kolaka,
7. nigama and
8. 蝉办补峁囜笉腻惫腻谤补.^[6]

On the architecture of fortress, the 础谤迟丑补艣腻蝉迟谤补 of 碍补耻峁璱濒测补 has carried a special treatment. It has described a number of forts to be made on certain places in different localities, viz., 蝉迟丑腻苍墨测补 in the centre of eight hundred villages, 诲谤辞峁嘺尘耻办丑补 in the centre of four hundred villages, 办腻谤惫补峁璱办补 in the centre of two hundred villages and 蝉补峁単谤补丑补峁嘺 in the midst of a collection of ten villages etc.^[7] On the utility of forts Manu has opined that if a warrior is protected by the fort then he can fight with a hundred enemy soldiers alone.^[8] The 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 seems to have borrowed its material from these traditional literatures.

In the Ausanasa Dhanurveda, the basic classification of forts [i.e., durga] was given, which universally accepted in India.

These forts are:

1. dhanvadurga (desert fort),
2. 尘补丑墨诲耻谤驳补 (mud fort),
3. jaladurga (water fort),
4. vanadurga (forest fort),
5. baladurga (fort protected by able warriors) and
6. giridurga (mountain fort).

The 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 has divided forts [i.e., durga] into four classes such as:

1. 苍腻诲别测补 (river fort),
2. 辫腻谤惫补迟测补 (the hill fort),
3. vanya (the forest fort) and
4. 办峁泃谤颈尘补 (artificial fort).^[9]

The 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤腻迟补 has enumerated six kinds of fort [i.e., durga] viz., the:

1. dhanvadurga,
2. 尘补丑墨诲耻谤驳补,
3. giridurga,
4. 尘补苍耻峁�y补诲耻谤驳补,
5. abdurga and
6. vanadurga.^[10]

In the 惭腻苍补蝉腻谤补, [fort, i.e., durga] is classified in to seven categories, viz.,

1. giridurga,
2. vanadurga,
3. saliladurga,
4. 辫补峁卥补诲耻谤驳补,
5. rathadurga,
6. devadurga, and
7. 尘颈艣谤补诲耻谤驳补.^[11]

According to Kautilya鈥檚 Arthasastra, there are four main types of forts [i.e., durga], viz.,

1. jaladurga (water fort),
2. giridurga (mountain fort),
3. marudurga (desert fort) and
4. vanadurga (forest fort).

Which are sub-divided into eight classes. Of these four types of forts, the water and mountain forts are regarded as the best.^[12]

Manu has mentioned six types of forts [i.e., durga], viz.,

1. dhanudurga,
2. 尘补丑墨诲耻谤驳补,
3. abdurga,
4. 惫峁沰峁�a诲耻谤驳补,
5. naradurga and
6. giridurga.^[13]

He has stated that among all the forts the giridurga may be regarded as the best for security. 础驳苍颈辫耻谤腻峁嘺 has also given the same classification on forts.^[14]

In the 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 six types of forts [i.e., durga] are mentioned. These are:

1. dhanurdurga,
2. 尘补丑墨诲耻谤驳补,
3. naradurga,
4. 惫峁沰峁�a诲耻谤驳补,
5. jaladurga and
6. giridurga.

Among these the giridurga is regarded as the best for war.^[15] Regulation for forts is also discussed very elaborately in the 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺. The durga or fortress should be surrounded by moat (辫补谤颈办丑腻), ditch and ramparts (vapr补峁�峁�腻濒补办补).^[16] Similar kind of specification is made in the 惭腻苍补蝉腻谤补 and 础谤迟丑补艣补蝉迟谤补 also.^[17] It should have great quantity of weapons (艣补迟补驳丑苍墨 yantra).

The 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 also gives description of the town inside a fort [i.e., durga]. The main entrance of the city should be made with decorated doors and it should be large enough so that the king could enter to the city riding on an elephant with his banner on it.⁵³ Inside the city four rectangular roads should be laid out. Among these four roads, a temple must be constructed in front of one road and of the second road there should be the royal palace. The houses of the judicial and military should be built in front of the third road and the main entrance of the city should be in front of the fourth road.^[18] The city should be rectangular, square, circular, semi circular (尘耻办迟颈丑墨苍补尘), triangular, drum shaped (yavamadhyam), crescent or diamond shaped. The town with crescent shape on riverside is regarded as the best. ⁵⁵ In the 础谤迟丑补艣腻蝉迟谤补 also the shapes of forts are broadly discussed. According to it, the fortress may be circular, rectangular or square, surrounded with artificial canal of water.^[19]

The 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 has given stress on the fact that one must start a building or house in an auspicious time.^[20] It is said that the construction should start in some particular month and in a particular asterism. Among the months 痴补颈艣腻办丑补, 膧峁Ｄ佱笉丑补, 艢谤腻惫补峁嘺, 碍腻谤迟颈办补, M膩rga艣ira, 惭腻驳丑补, 笔丑腻濒驳耻苍补 are regarded auspicious for construction as these months bless the owner with different benefits.^[21] Caitra, 闯测别峁ａ弓丑补, 叠丑腻诲谤补, 膧艣惫颈苍补, 笔补耻峁�a are regarded as inauspicious for starting any building, as it results loss of various valuable things.^[22] Auspicious asterisms for building constructions are 础艣惫颈苍墨, 搁辞丑颈峁嚹�, 惭奴濒腻, Uttarabhadrap膩da, 鲍迟迟补谤腻峁Ｄ佱笉丑腻, Uttar膩phalguni, 惭峁沢补艣ir膩, 厂惫腻迟墨, Hasta and 础苍耻谤腻诲丑腻.^[23] All the days of a week except the Sunday and Tuesday are auspicious for starting construction.^[24] Likewise auspicious 尘奴丑耻谤迟补s, viz., 艣惫别迟补, maitra, mahendra, etc. are also important for safe start of a construction.^[25] Therefore, in an auspicious month, on a certain auspicious day at an auspicious 尘奴丑耻谤迟补 and in auspicious lagna a pillar of building should be fixed. This is a rule of starting a building construction, which is observed in present time also.

The initial work in architectural planning is to survey the soil in which foundation of a building is to be constructed. This survey consists of the testing of the soil conditions, its suitability and fitness for planned construction. To test the quality of the land, 惫腻蝉迟耻辫补谤墨办峁Ｄ� should be done.^[26] For testing the soil the 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 prescribes to dig a hole in the soil. It should be of one foot and a half square. The hole should be cleaned and plastered properly with cowdung. Thereafter on an earthen pot ghee is to be placed. Then four wicks should be placed in it in four directions. If the eastern wick burns longer than the rest, it means the plot of land is good for the 产谤腻丑尘补峁嘺蝉, if the southern, western and northern wicks burn longest, it is auspicious for 办峁�a迟谤颈测补蝉, 惫补颈艣测补蝉 and 艣奴诲谤补蝉 respectively. If the wicks burn together it is good for all castes.^[27] Thereafter a small hollow is to be filled by excavated soil. If the excavated soil is greater than the hollow filled then the construction on such soil will bring prosperity. Again if the soil is insufficient to fill the hollow then the construction on such soil will bring loss. If the excavated soil is equal to the hollow then its result will be normal.^[28] Again the 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 has given some other directions on 产丑奴尘颈辫补谤墨办峁Ｄ�. To test the soil many seeds should be sown. If the seeds sprout in three days then it is regarded as superior, if seeds sprouts in 5 days then it is regarded as of the middle quality and if the seeds sprout in seven days the land is of inferior quality. The white earth is suited for 产谤腻丑尘补峁嘺, while for 办峁�a迟谤颈测补 the red earth is suitable. The yellow earth is suitable for 惫补颈艣测补. For 艣奴诲谤补 the suitable earth is black.^[29] Soil is also examined by testing the taste of it. According to the 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺, if the taste of the soil is sweet then it will be suitable for 产谤腻丑尘补峁嘺蝉. The soil which is pungent in taste is suitable for 办峁�a迟谤颈测补蝉, bitter soil is suitable for 惫补颈艣测补蝉 and astringent soil is suitable for 艣奴诲谤补蝉.^[30]

After testing the land and performing the rituals the 惫腻蝉迟耻辫耻谤耻峁�a 尘补峁囜笉补濒补 should be drawn. V膩stupuru峁�a尘补峁囜笉补濒补 have high modern value. It is similar to the modern conception of a graph which should be drawn dividing the ground plan into squares and giving name to squares.^[31] These are 肠补迟耻岣メ梗补峁ａ弓颈辫补诲补, 别办腻艣墨迟颈辫补诲补, and 艣补迟补辫补诲补 惫腻蝉迟耻. In 肠补迟耻岣メ梗补峁ａ弓颈辫补诲补 the site is divided into sixty four squares.^[32] In 别办腻艣墨迟颈 pada the site is divided into eighty one equal squares. One hundred equal squares in plan site are termed as 艣补迟补辫补诲补. Of them the 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 discussed in detail about 别办腻艣墨迟颈辫补诲补 i.e., eighty one square plans.

In V膩stupuru峁�a尘补峁囜笉补濒补, forty five devas are worshipped. Out of the forty five devas thirty two devas should be worshipped outside of the squares.

Devas worshipped outside the square are:

1. 艢颈办丑墨,
2. Parjanya,
3. Jayanta,
4. Indra,
5. 厂奴谤测补,
6. Satya,
7. 叠丑峁泂补,
8. 膧办腻艣补,
9. 痴腻测耻,
10. 笔奴峁ａ箛补,
11. Vitatha,
12. 骋峁沨补办峁�a迟补,
13. Yama,
14. Gandharva,
15. 惭峁沢补,
16. 叠丑峁沶驳补谤腻箩补,
17. 笔颈迟峁泂,
18. 顿补耻惫腻谤颈办补,
19. 厂耻驳谤墨惫补,
20. P耻峁�p补诲补苍迟补,
21. 闯补濒腻诲丑颈辫补,
22. Asura,
23. 艢辞峁�a,
24. 笔腻辫补,
25. Roga,
26. Ahimukhya,
27. 叠丑补濒濒腻峁璦,
28. Soma,
29. Sarpa,
30. Aditi and
31. Diti.^[33]

Thirteen devas should be worshipped inside it.

Devas worshipped inside the square are:

1. 础谤测补尘腻,
2. 厂补惫颈迟腻,
3. 痴颈惫补蝉惫腻苍补,
4. 痴颈惫耻诲丑腻诲丑颈辫补,
5. Mitra,
6. 搁腻箩补测补办峁�m腻,
7. 笔峁泃丑惫颈艣惫补谤补,
8. 膧辫补,
9. 膧辫补vatsa,
10. Parjanya,
11. Agni and
12. Diti. ^[34]

A noteworthy fact to be mentioned here is that the 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 has given stress on leaving some space all around the building. ^[35]

The 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 has specified the proper placements of different buildings in a royal palace. The treasury should be constructed in the southern part of the palace and to its south the royal stable for elephant should be built. The living place of the elephants should be made facing the east or north. The armory, royal kitchen and places for other works should be made to the south-eastern direction of the king鈥檚 palace. To the left of the palace there should be the houses of the ministers, royal priests, Vedic experts and the physicians as well. The stable, cowshed and storehouse also should be at the same direction. The stable should be made facing the north or south.^[36] These plans were generally followed in construction of a town in ancient India.^[37] The quarters of the charioteers or elephant drivers should be near the place of these animals. The king should provide dwelling places for soldiers, artisans and astrologers (办补濒腻尘补苍迟谤补惫颈诲). Apart from these the veterinary doctors should also be accommodated within the fortress and the 产谤腻丑尘补峁嘺蝉 and the bards should also get houses there.^[38]

Further the 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 has given stress on the security of the fort [i.e., durga] and suggested that armed forces should be deployed inside the fort to protect the king and the fort as well. Sufficient weapons and cannons should be there inside the fortress. Again secret doors should be made on the fort so that such secret doors could be of great support in case of any kind of danger.^[39] The 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 urged that a large number of people should not be allowed to enter the fortress without any need. The emperor should always remain in a well-guarded citadel protected by charms, warriors, balconies and there should be available all kinds of grains and medicines too.^[40] Moreover, the 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 has elaborations regarding some important items to be provided inside the forts for emergency purposes during war time when supplies from outside would be discontinued. The 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 has instructed to store the items of crafts, musical instruments, herbs and medicinal plants, fodder for animals, fuel, dairy products, all kinds of oil, molasses, sugar, hides, cereals and grains for food, cloth, barley and wheat, metals, earth and cowdung, green crops, pulses, combustible materials and many other kinds of herbs and plants for emergency.^[41] It is also said to keep sweetening, sour and astringent items, roots, fruits, flowers inside the fort.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

Cf., J. Marshall, Excavations at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, Volume I, pp. 282-89

[2]:

峁欢惫别诲补, 4.30.20, 2.35-36

[3]:

Ibid., 1.38.8, 2.20.8, 4.27.1, 7.3.7, 15.4, 95. 1, 10.101

[4]:

Ibid., 1.156. 8, 7.15.1

[5]:

Cf., Vasudeva S. Agrawala, 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 -A Study, p.298

[6]:

惭腻苍补蝉腻谤补, 10.40.4

[7]:

础谤迟丑补艣腻蝉迟谤补, 础诲丑测补办峁�a辫谤补蝉腻谤补,1.3-5

[8]:

惭补苍耻蝉尘峁沬迟颈, 7.74

[9]:

搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺, VI. 3.20, 22

[10]:

惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补, 12.86

[11]:

惭腻苍补蝉腻谤补, 10.90-91

[12]:

础谤迟丑补艣腻蝉补蝉迟谤补, 2.3, p. 50

[13]:

惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈, 7. 70

[14]:

础驳苍颈辫耻谤腻峁嘺, 222.1-6

[15]:

tatra 诲耻谤驳补峁� 苍峁沺补岣� kury膩t 峁�a峁囜箛膩mekatama峁� 产耻诲丑补岣�/ dhanur诲耻谤驳补峁� 尘补丑墨诲耻谤驳补峁� nara诲耻谤驳补峁� tathaiva ca// 惫腻谤办峁�a峁� caiv膩mvu诲耻谤驳补峁� ca giri诲耻谤驳补峁� ca 辫腻谤迟丑颈惫补/ sarve峁Ｄ乵eva durg膩峁嚹佱箖 giri诲耻谤驳补峁� pra艣asyate// 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺, 217.6-7

[16]:

诲耻谤驳补峁僣a parikhopeta峁� vapr膩峁�峁�膩lakasa峁儁utam/ Ibid., 217.8

[17]:

Cf., 惭腻苍补蝉腻谤补,10.106-109; also cf., 础谤迟丑补艣腻蝉迟谤补, 24, p. 51⁵³ 驳辞辫耻谤补峁� sakap膩峁璦帽ca tatra sy膩tsumanoharam/ sapat膩ka峁単aj膩r奴岣峢oyena 谤腻箩腻 惫颈艣别迟辫耻谤补尘// Ibid., 217.9

[18]:

Ibid., 217.10-12⁵⁵ Ibid., 217.12-14

[19]:

础谤迟丑补艣腻蝉迟谤补, 2.3, p.51

[20]:

惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺, 253.1

[21]:

Ibid., 253.2-5

[22]:

caitrevy膩dhimab膩pnoti yo 驳峁沨补峁� k膩rayennara岣�/ vai艣膩khe dhenuratn膩ni jyai峁ａ弓he m峁泃yum tathaiva ca/ 膩峁Ｄ佱笉he bh峁泃yaratn膩ni pa艣uvargamav膩pnuy膩t/ sr膩va峁噀 bh峁泃yalabhantu 丑腻苍颈峁� bh膩drapade tath膩/ patn墨n膩艣o鈥櫯泇ine vindy膩t k膩rtike dhanadh膩nyakam// Ibid., 253.2-5

[23]:

Ibid., 253.6

[24]:

Ibid., 253.7

[25]:

Ibid., 253.8

[26]:

Ibid., 253.11

[27]:

Ibid., 253.14-16

[28]:

Ibid., 253.16,17

[29]:

Ibid., 253.11-16

[30]:

Ibid., 253.12-13

[31]:

Cf., Vasudeva S.Agrawala, 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 -A Study, p.344

[32]:

惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺, 253.47-48

[33]:

Ibid.,

[34]:

Ibid., 253.30-31

[35]:

Ibid., 266

[36]:

Ibid., 217.15-19

[37]:

Cf., Vasudeva S.Agrawala, 惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺 -A Study, p.299

[38]:

惭补迟蝉测补辫耻谤腻峁嘺, 217.23-26

[39]:

Ibid., 217.28

[40]:

Ibid., 217.85-87

[41]:

Ibid., 217.42-84