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The Aushanasa Dhanurveda is one of the seven known branches of Dhanurveda. 14 This Dhanurveda expounds the classification of various

145 15 kinds of forts. These forts are dhanvadurga (desert fort), mahidurga (mud fort), jaladurga (water fort), vanadurga (forest fort), baladurga (fort protected by able warriors) and giridurga (mountain fort). This clearly indicates that the science of fortification received considerable importance during ancient times in India The basic classification of forts given in the Aushanasa Dhanurveda was universally accepted in India though few more types were added to this list during succeeding period by various. authorities. Manusmrti lists six types of forts: dhanudurga, mahidurga, abdurga. varkshydurga, naradurga and giridurga. 16 He states that out of all forts the giridurga may be regarded as the best for security. 17 He also mentions. drawbacks associated with the other types. The Visnusmrti enumerates only four types of forts. They are dhanvandurga, mahidurga, varidurga (water fort) and giridurga. 18 In the Ramayana forts were divided into four classes such as the river fort (nadeya), the hill fort (purvatya), the forest fort (vanya) and the artificial fort (krtrima). 19 Bhishma enumerates six kinds of forts to king Ydhishthira, 20 namely the dhanvadurga, mahindurga, giridurga, manusyadurga, abdurga and vanadurga. These six seem to be traditional since they are generally mentioned by all well-known authorities. in ancient India and also in the Puranas. Bhishma adds that 'the collection of trusted and able men is the greatest asset of the king and the naradurga, a fort protected by such men is the strongest among all six forts expounded in the sastras'. 21

Table 7 Classification of Forts as Given in Various Treatises Vastu Texts Desert Fort Irinadurga Arthasastra Brahmanda Purana Nirudakastambha Dhanvadurga Dhanudurga Audaka Matsya Purana Agni Purana DBP Samarangana Sutradhara Yuktikalpataru Dhanurdurga Nirudakastambha Irinadurga Irinadurga Water Fort Antardvipa Ambudurga Ambudurga Antardvipa Abdurga Nadijaladurga Forest Fort Sthala Khanjana Stambagahana Sthala Varkshyadurga Varkshyadurga Khanjana Vanadurga Vanadurga Stambhagahana Mountain Fort Guha Parvata Giridurga Giridurga Guha Guhadurga Prantara Earth Fort Man Fort Mire Fort Artificial Fort Natural Fort Prantara Parvata Parvata Mahidurga Mahidurga Naradurga Naradurga Pankadurga Kritrima Mixed Fort Akratrima Misradurga 146

147 Kautilya in his Arthasastra gives a different classification of forts. The forts are first divided into four main categories depending on the specific nature of the terrain in which they stand and are subsequently classified into eight types. The four main types of forts are water fort, mountain fort, desert fort. and forest fort, which are further subdivided into eight categories. 22 Out of four main divisions, water and mountain fortifications are regarded as the best. He says 23 that 'of two fortified kings, one who has his fort on a plain is more easily reduced than the other having a fort in the centre of a river; for a fort in a plain can be easily. assailed, destroyed or captured by the enemy entering it, whereas a fort surrounded by a river requires twice as much effort to capture and supplies the enemy with water and other necessities of life'. A major breakthrough in this field was achieved during the sixth century AD. Varahamihira in his Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira wrote a chapter titled Darkargolam, which expound the method of finding underground water currents in any given place. Various commentaries are written on this chapter during the last thousand years. Some more research was carried out on the lines prescribed in the text and methods given by Varahamihira were suitably modified but the basic principles remained unaltered. 24 It is clear from the Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira that the mountain forts continued to flourish and presently it can be seen that the mountain forts in India are self sufficient in water requirements. In the Brahmanda Purana three kinds of forts are described. They are dhanvadurga (desert fort)

148 25 audaka (water fort) and parvata (mountain fort) The parvata is the best In the Matsya Purana six kinds of forts are enumerated. They are dhanudurga, (a castle surrounded by desert), mahidurga (an earth fort), naradurga (a place of safety formed by placing the army in a particular position), varkshyadurga (a place densely surrounded by trees which make it impassable) ambudurga (a fort surrounded by water) and giridurga (a hill fortress) The giridurga is regarded as the best because it is difficult to conquer Most of the old Indian forts are of giridurga type, built by taking recourse to many ingenious defence devices. The Agni Purana also gives the same classification of forts as expounded in the Matsya Purana They are dhanvadurga (a fort having a desert or marshy area for its defence), ambudurga (a fort surrounded by some river or like, used for defence purposes), giridurga (a fort having mountaineous defences) mahidurga (fortress built mostly underground), varkshyadurga (a fort built in the midest of a forest) and naradurga (a place safety formed by placing the army in a particular position). If none of the above five facilities of defence be available the king should shift his capital city and the palace in the midest of a brave population who should serve him in good stead in times of need." This classification is the same as that given in the Mahabharata and in the Manusmriti. Here again the giridurga is regarded as the best because it is difficult to conquer while the other forts can be captured comparatively easily. 26

149 The description given in the Devi Bhagavat Purana tallies exactly with those expounded in the Kautilya Arthasastra. The forts are first divided into four main categories depending on the specific nature of the terrain in which they stand and are subsequently classified into eight types. 27 The Vayu Purana 28 described four kinds of forts. The first three kinds of forts are protected by hills and ditches. 29 The fourth kind of durga is called the Krtrima. The eleventh century's Samarangana Sutradhara of Bhoja divides forts into four divisions such as abdurga (jaladurga), panka-durga, parvatiya-durga (mountain fort) and guha durga. 30 All of these are described earlier. In Yuktikalpataru³¹ Bhoja first divides forts into two classes natural (akritrima) and artificial (kritrima) the natural fort is rendered inaccessible because of its very situation secured by natural defences. Artificial forts are protected by ramparts surmounted by embattled parapets and surmounted by moats. The other natural fortifications mentioned are a river, water, mountain, forest and mixed fortifications. The Narada Silpasastra, one of the oldest texts on Vastuvidya speaks of five kinds of fortress. Apart from three very known types vanadurga, giri-durga and jaladurga two more types are vahinidurga and yudhadurga. The Manasara 32 divides forts into eight classes called sibira, vahinimukha, sthaniya, dronaka, samvidhavara. There is further division of these forts according to their position. These are mountain fort, forest fort, chariot fort (rathadurga), god's fort (deva-durga), marsh fort (pankadurga),

150 water fort (jaladurga) and mixed fort (misradurga). The Mayamata gives an identical classification of forts. The Visvakarma Vastusastra³³ describes 12 kinds of forts. They are known as giri-durga, vana-durga, salila-durga, jaladurga or water fort, irina-durga (dhanva-durga or desert fort), daivatadurga (natural fort), ekmukha-durga (fort with one gate), dvimukhadurga (fort with two gates) chaturmukha-durga (fort with four gates), kurmadurga (tortoise fort), paravata-durga, yudha-durga and prabha-durga. Here we come across three new divisions of forts. These are kurma-durga, paravatadurga and prabhu-durga. Sukraniti, the other important work on Nitisastra, (having a controversial date) gives us a list of six forts. The parikhadurga, the parighadurga, the vanadurga or forest fort, the 34 dhanvadurga or desert fort, the jaladurga or water fort, the giri durga or hill-fort. Sukracarya 35 believes that the satayadurga and sainyadurga are the ornaments of all fortresses and repeats Manusmrti's words that a man with arms can fight one hundred when sheltered in a fort and one hundred soldiers can fight ten thousand, hence a king should have forts. Manasollas, also known as Abhilashitartha Chintamani of twelfth century describes nine kinds of forts, based on the types of surrounding terrain and also the specific material used for the fortification of ramparts. The Sivatatva Ratnakara is another important work compiled in South Indian towards the end of the seventeenth century has an interesting chapter on 36 the use and the construction of fortresses. Here nine fortresses are mentioned adding three more to the classical six of the Mahabharata These are

151 identical to those given in the Manasollasa This only shows that as time passed the types of fortresses increased in number The other important works which throw light on the subject of forts are Rajaniti Ratnakara of Chandesvara (fourteenth century AD), Rajadharmakauastubha of Anantadeva, Rajyavyavaharakosha of Raghunathpath Hanamante and finally Budhabhushanam of Sambhaji The last three works were written during the later half of the seventeenth century. All these works stick to the basic six types of forts given in the Mahabharata, Manusmrti, Matsya Purana and Agni Purana The Jayaprccha also enumerates sixteen kinds of land-forts on the basis of their shape According to Silpasastras there are nineteen varieties of forts. 37