Between Pandemic and Pan-Islamism
Journal name: Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions
Original article title: Entre pandémie et panislamisme
The journal “Archives of Social Sciences of Religions� publishes advanced research on religion in French, English, and Spanish. It studies the sociology of religions and religious traditions or theologies. It is supported by the INSHS-CNRS (“Institut des Sciences Humaines et Sociales�)
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Subtitle: L’imaginaire colonial du pèlerinage à La Mecque (1866-1914)
Alternative title(s): Between pandemic and pan-Islamism. Colonial imagination of the pilgrimage to Mecca (1866-1914)
Entre pandemia y panislamismo. El imaginario colonial de la peregrinación a La Meca (1866-1914)
Original source:
This page is merely a summary which is automatically generated hence you should visit the source to read the original article which includes the author, publication date, notes and references.
Luc Chantre
Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions:
(Founded in 1956 and published quarterly�)
Full text available for: Entre pandémie et panislamisme
Year: 2013 | Doi: 10.4000/assr.25258
Copyright (license): © Archives de sciences sociales des religions
Summary of article contents:
1) Introduction
The article "Between Pandemic and Pan-Islamism: Colonial Imagination of the Pilgrimage to Mecca (1866-1914)" by Luc Chantre explores the colonial narratives that emerged in response to cholera outbreaks linked to the Muslim pilgrimage, or hajj, to Mecca. It examines how the intersection of disease and political anxieties about Islam shaped perceptions of the pilgrimage and the people participating in it, particularly those from colonial territories like Algeria and India. The text outlines the historical context of cholera epidemics in the 19th century and their implications for colonial policies.
2) The Cholera Epidemic and Its Implications
One of the article's significant concepts is the identification of Mecca and its pilgrimage as a source of cholera that threatened Europe after the 1865 cholera epidemic. Health officials and colonial powers perceived the hajj as a catalyst for the rapid spread of the disease, leading to heightened fear and suspicion surrounding Muslim pilgrims, particularly the impoverished individuals. Reports from medical professionals and officials depicted the pilgrimage's rituals as potentially harmful, thereby creating a narrative that linked the physical act of pilgrimage to contagion.
3) The Role of Imperial Narratives
Chantre also discusses how imperial narratives constructed an image of Muslim pilgrims—especially the poor—as "risk groups" susceptible to both disease and radical ideologies like pan-Islamism. The article suggests that the colonial powers perceived the hajj as not only a health risk but also as a potential breeding ground for political dissent and Islamic revivalism, further complicating their reactions to the ongoing struggles for control over colonial territories. Such narratives pushed empires to adopt stringent measures to ‘protect� themselves from perceived threats stemming from their colonial subjects.
4) Sanitary Regulation and Colonial Control
Another concept explored is the sanitary regulations instituted by colonial authorities in response to the perceived health threats of the hajj. These included the establishment of quarantines for pilgrims returning from Mecca and stringent medical inspections. The regulations were not only aimed at controlling the spread of disease but also served to reinforce colonial authority over local populations. The treatment of returning pilgrims often resembled that of prisoners, illustrating the underlying fear and distrust of the colonized peoples.
5) Pan-Islamism and Its Colonial Perception
The article highlights how the fear of pan-Islamism was intertwined with the health concerns of the time. The idea that the pilgrimage could lead to a resurgence of Islamic solidarity among the colonized fueled anxieties within colonial powers. Sunni and Shia divisions, combined with the presence of influential religious figures like Sultan Abdülhamid II, contributed to the perception that the pilgrimage was a means for fostering anti-colonial sentiments. This connection between health and political ideologies underscored the broader geopolitical tensions of the era.
6) Conclusion
In conclusion, Luc Chantre’s article emphasizes the complex interplay between health crises, colonial governance, and the imagery surrounding the hajj to Mecca. The colonial imagination forged a narrative that linked disease, radicalism, and the challenges posed by the Muslim pilgrimage, leading to restrictive policies and heightened scrutiny of Muslim communities. Through the dual lenses of cholera and pan-Islamism, the text reveals how the legacies of colonialism continue to shape modern perceptions of pilgrimage, contagion, and religious identities.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What historical events prompted concerns about pilgrimage to Mecca?
The cholera epidemic of 1865 raised alarms as Mecca was identified as a cholera transmission site threatening Europe, leading to fears about pilgrims bringing disease.
How did colonial powers perceive the Hajj and its pilgrims?
Colonial narratives depicted Muslim pilgrims, particularly the poor, as 'risk groups' associated with both cholera and political unrest, amplifying fears of contagion and rebellion.
What measures were taken by colonial authorities to control pilgrimages?
Colonial governments implemented strict sanitary measures, including quarantines and oversight of pilgrim departures, to prevent the spread of cholera and monitor potential political dissent.
What role did the Suez Canal play in pilgrimage history?
The opening of the Suez Canal facilitated faster pilgrimages, increasing the number of pilgrims and subsequently the risk of infectious disease transmission across empires.
What narratives circulated regarding the relationship between Islam and contagion?
Literature of the time linked Islam with contagious diseases, suggesting that pilgrimage practices contributed to the spread of illnesses like cholera, fostering a climate of fear.
How did European perceptions affect policies toward Muslim pilgrims?
Negative perceptions led colonial powers to enforce strict travel regulations on pilgrims, labeling them as potential sources of disease and political agitation, especially if impoverished.
What was the impact of cholera on the shift in public health measures?
The cholera outbreaks prompted significant changes in international sanitary regulations and increased focus on health conditions among traveling populations, particularly towards Muslim pilgrims.
How did the political climate influence views on Muslim pilgrims?
The geopolitical tensions of the era, including anti-colonial sentiments and pan-Islamism, heightened scrutiny of pilgrims, intertwining health concerns with fears of religious resurgence and unrest.
Glossary definitions and references:
Theological and religious glossary list for “Between Pandemic and Pan-Islamism�. The list explains important keywords that occur in this and other scholarly articles. It is also linked to the glossary for understanding that concept in the context of History, Religion, Philosophy, Theology, Sociology etc.
1) Pilgrimage:
The concept of pilgrimage is central to the hajj, the Muslim pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca. Pilgrimage embodies both a spiritual journey and a collective experience, where pilgrims seek purification, connection to their faith, and participation in vital religious rites. The significance of pilgrimage is heightened by the historical context of health crises that threatened the safety and sanctity of the pilgrimage experience.
2) Pari:
[see source text or glossary: #Pari#]
3) Epidemic:
An epidemic, such as cholera during the period from 1866 to 1914, had political and social repercussions. Health officials identified the pilgrimage as a vector for the transmission of cholera, creating a fear of epidemics that linked disease with the sacred practices of Islam. This resulted in heightened sanitary controls around the pilgrimage to Mecca, illustrating the intersection of health, fear, and religious observance.
4) Indian:
The Indian pilgrims, particularly from areas like Bombay, played a crucial role during the cholera epidemics. Their journeys to Mecca were often marked by health risks associated with overcrowded conditions on ships, leading to the spread of disease. The implications of their movement highlight the colonial powers' perception of Indians as carriers of cholera and underscored the tensions between health, colonial authority, and religious devotion.
5) India:
[see source text or glossary: #India#]
6) Health:
Health is a significant concern in the narrative surrounding the pilgrimage to Mecca. The fear of epidemics such as cholera led to the establishment of health regulations aimed at restricting pilgrim movements, emphasizing the connection between health and religious practices. Health measures were constructed as both protective and punitive, showcasing the political implications of health in the context of colonial powers.
7) Ship:
Ships served as the primary means of transporting pilgrims to Mecca, connecting the maritime routes with the spread of cholera. The conditions aboard these ships were often crowded and unhygienic, contributing to the transmission of disease among pilgrims. The ships become symbolic of both the journey of pilgrimage and the associated health risks that drew scrutiny from colonial authorities.
8) Secret (Secrecy, Secretly):
[see source text or glossary: #Secret#]
9) Mina:
Mina, a key location during the hajj, faced significant scrutiny from health officials, who targeted it as a potential source of epidemic outbreaks. The sacrifices performed there were depicted negatively in colonial narratives, which portrayed the setting as contaminated and chaotic. This criticism reflects broader fears surrounding religious practices and public health, emphasizing the intersection of space, ritual, and epidemic concerns.
10) Fear:
Fear permeated the discourse around the pilgrimage due to the cholera outbreaks and the perceived threats posed by collective religious gatherings. This fear was compounded by the colonial regimes, which associated Muslims and pilgrims with both fanaticism and disease, framing them as potential agents of contagion. It illustrates how fear influenced policy-making and public perception of the pilgrimage.
11) Education:
Education surfaced as a crucial factor in managing the perceptions of Muslim pilgrims. The colonial narrative often framed educated Muslims as 'respectable', contrasting them with poorer pilgrims viewed as 'dangerous'. Efforts to educate the Muslim community reflected a colonial strategy aimed at cultivating loyalty and mitigating perceived threats posed by uneducated masses embarking on pilgrimage.
12) Power:
Power dynamics are evident in the control exerted by colonial authorities over the pilgrimage. The intersection of sanitary regulations, political oversight, and the management of pilgrim flows illustrates how power was wielded to shape the outcomes of religious practice within a colonial context, asserting dominance over indigenous populations.
13) Politics:
The pilgrimage became highly politicized as colonial officials examined the connections between disease spread, social unrest, and the hajj. Various narratives about cholera and pan-Islamism were strategically employed to justify regulations and the policing of Muslims, showcasing how politics intertwined with religious pilgrimage in the colonial imaginary.
14) Sacrifice:
Sacrifice practices in Mina stirred criticism and were denounced as hazardous to public health, with colonial observers particularly highlighting the chaotic nature of the rites. The act of sacrifice, integral to the pilgrimage, was portrayed through a lens of pollution, linking religious devotion to health risks, underpinning a fear of contagion from such practices.
15) Disease:
Disease, exemplified by cholera, served as a focal point in discussions around the hajj. Colonizers framed the holy pilgrimage as a source of disease transmission, constituting a public health threat that necessitated strict controls. Disease narratives not only served to warn but also stigmatized Muslim pilgrims, highlighting the sociopolitical implications of health in the context of colonial rule.
16) Delhi:
[see source text or glossary: #Delhi#]
17) Camp:
Camps established for quarantine measures during the pilgrimage highlight the colonial response to health crises. These camps, intended to isolate potentially diseased pilgrims, represented a form of control and surveillance reflective of the colonial hierarchy. The existence of these camps illustrated the tension between religious practices and public health in the context of the hajj.
18) Purification:
Purification rituals are critical to the pilgrimage experience, but health officials questioned their role in transmitting disease. The traditional practices were scrutinized, emphasizing the contested nature of sacred acts in light of hygiene and safety concerns. This critique of purification practices signifies the intertwining of religious fervor and the necessity for sanitary practices during the hajj.
19) Literature:
Literature from the period often depicted the pilgrimage in dark, foreboding terms, reflecting a colonial imagination steeped in fear and moral judgment. Accounts of the pilgrimage functioned to reinforce stereotypes about Muslims and emphasized hygiene concerns. Such narratives contribute to the complex literary tradition surrounding the pilgrimage experience.
20) Imaginary:
The colonial imaginary regarding the pilgrimage was filled with fear of contagion and associations with violence and fanaticism. This imaginary constructed Muslim pilgrims as threats to public health and social order, framing their sacred journey within a context of suspicion and control that characterized colonial governance.
21) Religion:
Religion plays a central role in understanding the pilgrimage to Mecca, demonstrating the profound spiritual commitment of Muslim pilgrims. However, the colonial perception often reduced religious practices to mere vectors of disease. This interplay of religion and colonial power dynamics presents a complicated view of faith in the context of health and surveillance.
22) Hygiene (Hygienic):
Hygienic considerations became paramount in the discourse surrounding the hajj, driving the establishment of health regulations and the imposition of quarantine measures. These hygienic anxieties underscored the colonial view that Muslim practices could compromise public health, fueling narratives of suspicion.
23) Space:
The spatial dynamics surrounding the pilgrimage emphasized how places like Mecca and Mina were viewed through the lens of health and contagion. The geographical designations of these holy sites were increasingly associated with disease outbreaks, affecting how colonial authorities managed the appropriate use of space during the hajj.
24) Limit (Limiting, Limited):
[see source text or glossary: #Limit#]
25) Anti (Amti):
[see source text or glossary: #Anti#]
26) Java:
Pilgrims from Java represented a significant demographic in the hajj, contributing to the broader patterns of movement and disease transmission. The presence of Javanese pilgrims in Mecca underscored concerns about health risks that traveled with diverse populations. Their participation highlighted the ways in which colonial powers categorized pilgrims based on race and origin.
27) Environment:
The environment surrounding the pilgrimage, particularly in relation to sanitation and health, influenced the experiences of pilgrims. Colonial authorities framed the conditions within the pilgrimage environment as potentially hazardous, linking environmental factors to the transmission of diseases like cholera, which ultimately affected health policies.
28) Conquest:
[see source text or glossary: #Conquest#]
29) Death:
Death tolls during cholera outbreaks among pilgrims highlighted the severe risks associated with the hajj. The significant mortality rates became focal points in narratives that portrayed the pilgrimage as a deadly venture. These deaths also reinforced colonial fears regarding uncontrollable crowds and disease transmission.
30) Ocean:
The trans-oceanic nature of the pilgrimage, facilitated by steamship routes, emphasized how interconnectedness contributed to the rapid spread of cholera. The ocean routes became sites of concern where the intersection of travel, disease, and colonial management manifested, reshaping perceptions of pilgrimage movements.
31) Black:
[see source text or glossary: #Black#]
32) Blood:
Blood, particularly in the context of sacrificial rites during the hajj, drew attention from health officials who perceived it as a medium for potential disease spread. The association between sacrifice and bloodshed raised alarm regarding hygiene and health, contributing to the perception of pilgrimage as a public health threat.
33) Agent:
The notion of pilgrims as potential agents of disease emphasized the colonial construction of risk in the context of the hajj. This framing depicted pilgrims not just as spiritual seekers but also as vectors of contagion, leading to a narrative that marginalized their religious observances in favor of health concerns.
34) Jacob:
[see source text or glossary: #Jacob#]
35) Food:
[see source text or glossary: #Food#]
36) Flag:
The concept of the national flag in regard to pilgrimage reflected the colonial desire to control and define the spaces pilgrims could occupy. The use of flagged ships represented the intersection of national governance and religious practice, symbolizing how colonial authorities attempted to regulate the pilgrimage experience.
37) Strengthening:
Strengthening sanitary measures and regulations around the pilgrimage highlighted the colonial response to fears of contagion. These measures were presented as necessary for public health while simultaneously serving to reinforce colonial authority over Muslim populations during their sacred journeys.
38) Disappearance (Disappeared, Disappear, Disappearing):
[see source text or glossary: #Disappearance#]
39) Civilization:
The contrasting views of civilization between colonial powers and the communities participating in the pilgrimage underscored perceived cultural differences. Colonial narratives often depicted Muslim practices, particularly during the hajj, as contrary to 'civilized' standards of hygiene and order, driving a wedge between cultural practices and colonial ideologies.
40) Transmission:
Transmission of disease, particularly cholera, during the pilgrimage formed the basis of colonial anxieties. The fear of disease spread among pilgrims and into Europe led to harsh regulations and further stigmatization of those participating in the hajj, exemplifying the fears surrounding public health.
41) Threatening:
The threatening nature of the pilgrimage, as viewed by colonial authorities, emerged from fears regarding mass gatherings and collective religious fervor. This perception contributed to significant regulation and a generalized suspicion of pilgrims as potential sources of disease and unrest.
42) Perception:
Perceptions of pilgrims were deeply influenced by prevailing health narratives that associated them with contagion and violence. This perception was instrumental in legitimizing strict controls on pilgrimage, reflecting the underlying prejudices held by colonial administrators towards colonized populations.
43) Reflection:
[see source text or glossary: #Reflection#]
44) Evolution:
[see source text or glossary: #Evolution#]
45) Geography:
Geography plays a critical role in the hajj, influencing the pathways pilgrimages take and the health risks associated with them. The geographical context shaped the strategies of colonial powers as they maneuvered to contain the cholera outbreaks linked to the movement of pilgrims from various regions.
46) Foreigner:
The figure of the foreigner, particularly in the context of Muslim pilgrims, was characterized by colonial narratives that depicted them as a source of disease and disorder. This notion reflects broader themes of xenophobia that shaped how governments managed cultural and health-related issues.
47) Residence:
[see source text or glossary: #Residence#]
48) Physician:
Physicians played a significant role in the discourse surrounding the pilgrimage, where their observations influenced health policies and public opinion on the risks associated with the hajj. Their reports often perpetuated the fear of disease and catalyzed stricter sanitary regulations affecting pilgrim movements.
49) Existence:
The existence of cholera and other diseases during the hajj signified essential threats to communal health and well-being. This existence intertwined with the larger narrative of pilgrimage, accentuating fears regarding the convergence of spirituality and public health crises.
50) Isolation:
Isolation was a tactic employed to mitigate the risks associated with the hajj, as quarantine measures aimed to separate suspect pilgrims from the larger community. This form of isolation symbolized the extreme lengths to which colonial authorities went to manage fears of contagion and enforce public health.
51) Critique:
Critiques of the pilgrimage centered around its association with disease, reflecting broader societal anxieties regarding public health. These critiques expressed predefined prejudices prevalent among colonial elites, shaping the narrative and treatment of Muslim pilgrims during the period.
52) Obstacle:
As health officials identified the pilgrimage as an obstacle to public safety due to cholera, actions taken to control pilgrim movements reflected colonial authorities' desire to minimize perceived threats to societal order and health. This obstacle narrative demonized collective religious observance.
53) Freedom:
Freedom of movement for pilgrims became a contested topic amid the cholera outbreaks, reflecting the push and pull between the desire for religious expression and the imposition of regulatory measures by colonial authorities that sought to control the pilgrimage experience.
54) Hundred:
[see source text or glossary: #Hundred#]
55) Extreme:
Extreme measures were often adopted in response to the perceived threats posed by pilgrims, with sanitary protocols designed to contain cholera outbreaks becoming a significant aspect of the hajj experience. These extreme responses manifested in strict regulations, fueling mistrust between colonial powers and Muslim communities.
56) Ganges:
The Ganges delta was highlighted as a breeding ground for cholera, connecting the disease to pilgrimages from Hindustan and further illustrating geographical links between health, religious sites, and the movement of people across colonial boundaries.
57) Thomas:
[see source text or glossary: #Thomas#]
58) Bombay:
Bombay served as a significant point of origin for pilgrims traveling to Mecca, emphasizing the interconnectedness of colonial India with Islamic practices. The city's significance in terms of pilgrimage highlighted the logistical challenges posed by the journey and the health risks associated with mass travel.
59) Persia:
[see source text or glossary: #Persia#]
60) Thirst:
[see source text or glossary: #Thirst#]
61) Safety:
Safety concerns regarding pilgrims were paramount during the cholera outbreaks, leading to regulatory measures crafted to protect public health. The threats posed by the health crisis prompted colonial governments to rigorously enforce safety protocols that often restricted pilgrim movements.
62) Valley:
The valley of Mina became a focal point of health concerns and critique during the hajj, with its geography intertwined with the hygienic discussions surrounding the sacrificial rites performed therein. This valley, framed as an epidemiological threat, contributed to public fear and regulatory interference.
63) Hatred:
Hatred toward Muslims was prevalent in colonial narratives that equated disease with Islamic practices. This hatred informed public health policies and practices that marginalized pilgrims and constructed them as threats to societal well-being.
64) Egypt:
Egypt represented another critical location in the narrative of cholera transmission during the pilgrimage, serving as a point of concern for colonial authorities. The Egyptian context illustrates the regional complexities surrounding health and the hajj, further complicating the colonial understanding of disease spread.
65) White:
The white cloth of ihram, worn by pilgrims during the hajj, came under scrutiny as health officials criticized its role in the journey's physical and spiritual purification. This critique of the sacred garment reflected broader anxieties regarding health and hygiene during the pilgrimage.
66) Logic (Logical):
The logic behind the stringent health measures taken during the hajj stemmed from a desire to control disease and maintain order. This logic informed colonial perceptions, highlighting the intersection of public health, power, and religious observance.
67) Cutan:
[see source text or glossary: #Sudan#]
68) Roman (Roma):
[see source text or glossary: #Roman#]
69) Hour:
[see source text or glossary: #Hour#]
70) Lead:
[see source text or glossary: #Lead#]
71) Mind:
The mindsets of colonial authorities were shaped by prevailing fears of disease and panic surrounding the pilgrimage. This mentality influenced governance, driving an agenda that sought to maximize control over pilgrimage practices while limiting perceived threats.
72) Face (Facing, Faced):
[see source text or glossary: #Face#]
73) White garment (White cloth, White dress):
The white cloth of ihram, emblematic of the pilgrimage, was questioned in terms of its hygienic implications during the cholera outbreaks. Colonial critiques often equated the ritual purity associated with this garment with the potential for disease transmission.
74) New Delhi:
[see source text or glossary: #New Delhi#]
75) Manifest (Manifested, Manifestation, Manifesting):
The manifestation of cholera during pilgrimages underscored the convergence of health crises and spiritual observances. This manifestation attracted attention from colonial officials, who attached significance to the health implications of collective religious gatherings.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 167]