Three Studies on Chinese Religions
Journal name: Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions
Original article title: Trois Ă©tudes sur les religions chinoises
The journal “Archives of Social Sciences of Religions� publishes advanced research on religion in French, English, and Spanish. It studies the sociology of religions and religious traditions or theologies. It is supported by the INSHS-CNRS (“Institut des Sciences Humaines et Sociales�)
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Alain Peyraube
Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions:
(Founded in 1956 and published quarterly�)
Full text available for: Trois Ă©tudes sur les religions chinoises
Year: 1973
Copyright (license): © Archives de sciences sociales des religions
Summary of article contents:
Introduction
This text provides a comprehensive review of three significant studies on Chinese religions, focusing on various texts published in the 1970s. The works discussed include "Manuel des superstitions chinoises" by H. Doré, "La Vie sexuelle dans la Chine ancienne" by Robert van Gulik, and "Le Taoïsme et les religions chinoises" by Henri Maspéro. Each of these contributions offers valuable insights into different aspects of Chinese beliefs, customs, and the interplay of various religious ideologies.
Popular Superstitions and Chinese Religion
H. Doré's "Manuel des superstitions chinoises" serves as an essential guide to the beliefs and practices of popular Chinese religion, which is often categorized as "syncretic." Written initially in 1926 and later republished, the manual is structured into nine chapters covering topics such as children's superstitions, marriage rituals, practices for illnesses, funerary customs, and various regional superstitions in China. Although it presents a wealth of information and serves as a foundational resource, it lacks in-depth analysis or critical commentary. Moreover, Doré’s intention to prepare for evangelization is evident through his occasional disapproving reflections on popular practices.
Sexual Life in Ancient China
Robert van Gulik's "La Vie sexuelle dans la Chine ancienne" analyzes the sexual customs and beliefs of ancient China, spanning from 1500 BCE to 1644 CE. The book outlines how various Chinese religious traditions, such as Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, shaped attitudes toward sexuality. Van Gulik argues that Confucianism promoted a restrictive view, emphasizing separation of the sexes and the role of men as dominant in family structures, while Taoism encouraged sexual freedom and practices. The nuanced relationship between these religious frameworks and sexual conduct offers a sociological perspective on how religious ideology can influence personal behavior and societal norms.
Taoism and Its Religious Context
Henri Maspéro's compilation of articles, "Le Taoïsme et les religions chinoises," presents a detailed examination of Taoism alongside other Chinese religious traditions. Through various essays, Maspéro explores the historical development of religion in China and the evolution of Taoism as a personal religious practice. He questions interpretations that simplify Taoism as merely a blend of superstitions, highlighting its role as a significant spiritual pathway aiming for personal salvation and immortality. Maspéro’s work delves into the organization and rituals of the Taoist church and provides insights into the communal and spiritual dynamics of Taoism from the Han dynasty onward.
Conclusion
The three studies collectively enrich our understanding of Chinese religions by examining popular beliefs, sexual norms, and the complex interrelations among religious traditions. Each author contributes to a nuanced portrayal of how religious beliefs shape cultural practices and individual behaviors in China. While contemporary scholarship may offer new findings, the insights articulated by Doré, van Gulik, and Maspéro remain foundational in the study of Chinese socioreligious dynamics. These works continue to resonate with scholars interested in the intersections of religion, culture, and society in China.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What is the main focus of H. Doré's manual?
H. Doré's manual provides insights into Chinese popular superstitions and beliefs, compiling various religious practices and rituals observed throughout China, especially in the context of popular syncretic religion.
How does Robert van Gulik’s work relate to ancient Chinese sexuality?
Robert van Gulik's book explores the sexual practices in ancient China, detailing the sociological influences of Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism on sexual relationships, spanning from 1500 BC to 1644 AD.
What does Henri Maspéro's work cover about Chinese religions?
Henri Maspéro's work offers an overview of classical Chinese religions, including Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and touches on ancient religion and mythology, exploring their historical development and interrelations.
How are sexual practices framed in the context of Taoism?
Taoism encourages sexual freedom and practices aimed at achieving immortality, contrasting with Confucian views, which emphasize strict gender roles and moderation in sexual affairs.
What is the significance of the popular religion described in Maspéro's work?
Maspéro's analysis concludes that modern Chinese popular religion blends elements from Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism, forming a distinct system of beliefs that influences societal behaviors and structures.
What contributions did Maspéro make to the study of Taoism?
Maspéro is recognized as a pioneer in Taoist studies, analyzing its historical dimensions, religious practices, and organizational aspects, particularly during the Han period and later developments.
Glossary definitions and references:
Theological and religious glossary list for “Three Studies on Chinese Religions�. The list explains important keywords that occur in this and other scholarly articles. It is also linked to the glossary for understanding that concept in the context of History, Religion, Philosophy, Theology, Sociology etc.
1) Religion:
Religion in China encompasses various belief systems, including Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, which together shape the spiritual and cultural landscape of Chinese civilization.
2) Taoism (Taoist tradition, Daoist tradition, Daoism):
Taoists follow the teachings of Taoism and often engage in rituals and practices that seek to communicate with the Taoist deities and achieve a spiritual existence.
3) China:
China's rich history is characterized by the interplay of various religions, including Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, which have influenced its philosophy, culture, and social structures.
4) Confucianism (Confucian tradition):
Confucian values emphasize filial piety, social harmony, and moral integrity, which have shaped not only individual behavior but also the broader social structures in China.
5) Sex (Sexual):
The study of sexual life in ancient China reveals how sexual practices were influenced by Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist teachings, impacting societal norms and individual relationships.
6) Buddhism (Buddhist tradition):
Buddhist practices in China are characterized by meditation, teaching, and community involvement, promoting concepts of compassion and enlightenment alongside local traditions.
7) Book:
The texts discussed in relation to these studies serve as foundational documents for understanding the development and characteristics of Chinese religions, including interpretations and perspectives.
8) Immortality:
The pursuit of immortality is a significant theme in Taoism, where various practices aim to achieve everlasting life and connect with the divine through spiritual and physical exercises.
9) Doctrine:
Doctrinal teachings in Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism guide practitioners' actions and beliefs, establishing moral and ethical standards that have shaped cultural values.
10) Dynasty:
Various dynasties in Chinese history, such as the Han and Tang, significantly influenced the evolution of religious practices and philosophical thought, shaping the trajectory of spiritual life in China.
11) Woman (Women):
The role of women in Chinese religious and philosophical contexts has been complex, as different traditions, like Buddhism and Taoism, offered varying degrees of freedom and respect compared to Confucian expectations.
12) Pari:
[see source text or glossary: #Pari#]
13) Cult:
The concept of cult relates to the worship of deities and spirits within popular religion in China, encompassing a wide array of practices and beliefs beyond organized religion.
14) Lead:
Religious leaders in China, such as Taoist instructors, play crucial roles in guiding their communities in spiritual practices and teachings aimed at achieving enlightenment and moral living.
15) Festival:
Festivals in Chinese culture often intertwine with religious practices, commemorating deities, agricultural cycles, and significant historical events that reflect the community's beliefs.
16) Death:
Rituals associated with death in Chinese religions, particularly within Taoism and popular beliefs, emphasize respect for ancestors and the importance of proper burial practices to ensure peace for the deceased.
17) Mythology:
Chinese mythology is rich with narratives about gods, spirits, and legendary figures that shape the religious imagination and cultural identity of the people.
18) Deity (Deities):
Deities in Chinese religion often represent natural elements or societal values, with followers engaging in worship and rituals to seek blessings and protection from them.
19) Turban:
[see source text or glossary: #Turban#]
20) Yellow:
The Yellow Turban Rebellion illustrates a historical moment when religious fervor and socio-political issues intertwined, demonstrating the influence of popular religious movements in Chinese history.
21) Breath:
Practices promoting breath control and circulation are common in Taoism, aimed at achieving a harmonious balance of body and spirit necessary for spiritual cultivation.
22) Erotic (Eroticism):
Chinese erotic literature, as discussed in Robert van Gulik's work, reflects societal attitudes toward sexuality, intertwining with religious and philosophical discourses in understanding sexual relations.
23) Three Studies:
The three studies on Chinese religions provide comprehensive insights into the historical development and practices within Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism, illuminating their interrelations.
24) Communication (Communicating, Communicate, Communicated):
Effective communication with spiritual beings is key in Taoism and other Chinese religions, particularly through rituals that reinforce the relationship between worshippers and deities.
25) Philosophy:
The philosophies of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have deeply influenced Chinese thought, offering frameworks for ethical behavior, spiritual exploration, and societal organization.
26) Separation (Separateness, Separate, Separated):
The principle of separation of genders, chiefly promoted by Confucianism, has historically impacted social interaction and relationships between men and women in Chinese society.
27) Sentiment:
Religious sentiment in China encompasses a broad spectrum of beliefs and practices, resulting in a vibrant tapestry of spirituality that transcends distinct religious labels.
28) Spiritual:
Spiritual life in China is characterized by a blend of practices and beliefs across religions, aiming at personal cultivation, moral development, and connection with the divine.
29) Existence:
[see source text or glossary: #Existence#]
30) Marriage:
Marriage rituals and customs reflect the intertwining of family, societal expectations, and religious practices, especially as seen in the beliefs surrounding engagements and ceremonies.
31) Alphabet:
The alphabetical references in the context of Chinese phonetics support the understanding of Chinese terms and their meanings, facilitating communication and education in cultural studies.
32) Conquest:
The conquest of China by the Manchus marked a significant shift in societal attitudes and religious practices, leading to changes in the perception of previously dominant beliefs.
33) Nature:
Nature and its elements are often personified in Chinese religions, reflecting the interconnectedness of human life with the natural world and underlying spiritual principles.
34) Coffin:
Coffin preparation and decoration are significant aspects of mortuary practices in Chinese culture, indicating respect for the deceased and adherence to traditions surrounding death.
35) Shanxi:
[see source text or glossary: #Shanxi#]
36) Birth:
Beliefs and superstitions surrounding birth in Chinese culture reflect deep-rooted traditions and rituals aimed at protecting and ensuring the well-being of children and mothers.
37) Court:
The influence of the royal court on religious practices and societal norms illustrates how governance and spiritual authority intertwine in the historical context of China.
38) Poem:
Poetic expressions have historically been used in Chinese literature to convey philosophical and religious ideas, enriching the cultural tapestry with emotional depth and reflection.
39) Door:
The symbolic importance of doors in Chinese architecture often connects to beliefs regarding protection and auspiciousness, playing a role in household religious practices.
40) Soil:
The reverence for soil deities in ancient Chinese religion illustrates the connection between land, agriculture, and spiritual practices tied to community sustenance.
41) Spiritual life:
Spiritual life in Chinese traditions emphasizes practices aimed at achieving harmony with the universe and a connection with both deities and ancestral spirits.
42) Manifest (Manifested, Manifestation, Manifesting):
In Chinese religions, the manifestation of gods and spirits is often linked to natural phenomena, showcasing the intertwining of the spiritual and physical worlds.
43) Civilization:
Chinese civilization is a rich tapestry woven from its diverse religions and philosophies, which have shaped its culture, art, and social structures throughout history.
44) Repression:
Repression within the context of Confucianism and the historical treatment of sexuality in China illustrates the complexities of social norms and individual expression.
45) Divination:
Divination practices in popular religion reflect the desire to seek guidance from the spiritual realm, common in Chinese culture and intertwined with daily life.
46) Meditation:
Meditation is fundamental in several Chinese religious traditions, including Buddhism and Taoism, fostering spiritual growth and a deeper understanding of one’s self.
47) Literature:
Chinese literature explores themes relevant to the religious landscape, providing insight into societal attitudes towards love, morality, and spirituality throughout history.
48) Unpleasant:
Unpleasant reflections regarding certain practices in the studies demonstrate the tension between different religious perspectives and social norms in historical contexts.
49) Reflection:
Critical reflection on the practices and beliefs within Chinese religions allows for a deeper understanding of individual and collective experiences across history.
50) Observance:
Observances in Chinese religion are rituals or festivals that hold cultural significance, reflecting the values and beliefs of communities engaged in these practices.
51) Science (Scientific):
A scientific approach to the study of Chinese religions, as showcased in these works, enables a systematic understanding of complex spiritual traditions and their social implications.
52) Gentleness:
Gentleness, as described in the context of Buddhist practices, reflects a core value in fostering compassion, promoting harmonious relationships and spiritual well-being.
53) Knowledge:
Knowledge of Taoist texts and practices contributes significantly to understanding the nuances of spatial and spiritual life in the context of Chinese religious traditions.
54) Evolution:
The evolution of religious practices in China illustrates how historical and cultural shifts influence existing beliefs and lead to the adaptation and development of new traditions.
55) Salvation:
The concept of salvation within Taoism and Buddhism varies, with practices aimed at achieving spiritual liberation and enlightenment central to the religious experience.
56) Harshness:
The harshness of Confucian moral standards often contrasts with the more liberating approaches of Taoism, leading to differing perspectives on sexual relations.
57) Confucius:
Confucius's teachings laid the groundwork for Confucianism, stressing the importance of ethics, family relationships, and social harmony in administering governance.
58) Richness:
The richness of Chinese mythology and religious practices provides a comprehensive understanding of the diverse beliefs and enduring cultural significance of these traditions.
59) Exercise:
Physical exercises, especially in Taoism, are integral to spiritual practices, promoting health, vitality, and the cultivation of the inner self through breath control.
60) Child (Children):
Beliefs concerning children in Chinese culture often involve superstitions and rituals intended to ensure safety and health during childbirth and early development.
61) Shandong:
[see source text or glossary: #Shandong#]
62) Illness:
Illness in Chinese culture often invokes spiritual remedies and rituals aimed at healing, reflecting the vital connection between health and religious beliefs.
63) Freedom:
The freedom to practice various religions in China marks a crucial aspect of cultural identity, allowing for a diverse expression of beliefs throughout the country.
64) Triumph:
The triumph of Buddhism over local practices during certain historical periods demonstrates the dynamic interplay of spiritual beliefs and community values.
65) Worship:
Worship practices in Chinese religions integrate ancestral veneration, divine invocation, and collective rituals, reflecting the community's spiritual life and cultural heritage.
66) Release:
Release from earthly ties and the quest for transcendence are central themes in both Taoism and Buddhism, emphasizing a spiritual journey toward enlightenment.
67) Eternal:
Eternal life is a primary aspiration in Taoism, motivating various practices designed to connect believers deeply with the cosmos and promote spiritual immortality.
68) Worldly:
Worldly attachments are often seen as distractions in Buddhist and Taoist practices, highlighting the path toward spiritual liberation and deeper understanding of existence.
69) Devotion (Devoted):
Devoted practitioners of Chinese religions engage in rituals, ceremonies, and moral living, reflecting their commitment to their faith and collective identity.
70) Jiangxi:
[see source text or glossary: #Jiangxi#]
71) Guangxi:
[see source text or glossary: #Guangxi#]
72) Guizhou:
[see source text or glossary: #Guizhou#]
73) Sichuan:
[see source text or glossary: #Sichuan#]
74) Shijing (Shi Jing):
[see source text or glossary: #Shijing#]
75) Shujing (Shu Jing):
[see source text or glossary: #Shujing#]
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 103]