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The thesis of this thesis elucidated in the preceding chapters is that 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 is a modern form of Jaina meditation, which is different from the ancient Jaina meditative practices. It is unlike those of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 as recorded in the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补, as well as subsequent developments of Jaina meditation as a four鈥揻old system, medieval conceptualisation of Jaina meditation by Haribhadra (8^th c. CE) using the model of eight-fold views (诲峁涐梗峁璱) and the medieval adoption of four-fold tantric meditation. Furthermore, 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 is even distinct from the early meditations, which developed in the Ter膩panth sect. We have seen that Mah膩praj帽a outlined 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 on a scientific basis, including various aspects from Hindu and Buddhist meditation techniques and involving 腻测耻谤惫别诲颈肠 and astronomical elements.

Chapter two demonstrated that Jainism can, in fact, claim the existence of an ascetic tradition of meditational practice since the time of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 in the 5th c. BCE. However, it is clear that the extreme forms of physical asceticism present in early Jainism, noted by Bronkhorst and in early Buddhist literature, and the earliest forms of Jaina meditational practice such as motionlessness and solitary practices are quite different from the characteristically non-ascetic features of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补. It is observed that from the 1^st c. CE, meditational practices in the 膧惫补艣测补办补-苍颈谤测耻办迟颈 and later literature on 办腻测辞迟蝉补谤驳补 are presented in a new and highly developed fashion, including complex categorizations pertaining to various aspects of 办腻测辞迟蝉补谤驳补鈥檚 theory and practice. This literature records a shift in the characteristics of meditation from being a tool that is purely liberation-focused to one that can also be applied to more worldly goals, e.g. as a means of religious interaction with a god or goddess, for worldly assistance or other mundane boons.

Asceticism and meditation cannot be viewed as separate practices in the early period. Rather, they were intertwined. With time, the four-fold categorisation of meditation evolved in later forms of Jaina meditational practices as stages of psychological development, moral conduct and scriptural learning, which are found in late canonical and classical Jainism, starting from the 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补 and S奴trak峁泃膩峁単a蝉奴迟谤补. These forms of meditation are fundamentally different from the tantric and ritual characteristics of medieval Jaina meditation. Thus, during the time of Haribhadra (8^th c. CE) and Hemacandra (12^th c. CE), there is a sharp shift in Jaina meditational practice and understanding, which is discussed by Qvarnstr枚m (2002) and Chapple (2003). Many tantric elements were incorporated into Jainism during this period, which were instrumental in the later development of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补. Thus, mainstream Hindu tantric elements are mirrored in Mah膩praj帽a鈥檃 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 system. For example, the notion of 鈥渃oiled power鈥� (办耻峁囜笉补濒颈苍墨) is translated by him under the title 鈥渋nternal journey鈥� (补苍迟补谤测腻迟谤腻), the system of 鈥渨heels鈥� (cakra) or 鈥渓otuses鈥� (kamala) is reinterpreted as 鈥減sychic centers鈥�, (caitanya kendra), 鈥渃olour visualisation鈥� (谤腻驳补-诲丑腻谤补峁嚹�) is referred to as 鈥渃olour meditation鈥� (濒别艣测腻-诲丑测腻苍补) and the 鈥渇ixing鈥� of mantra syllables on various parts of the body (mantra-苍测腻蝉补). In this respect, 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 represents an attempt to develop a new model of meditation, infused with tantric elements, which is compatible with modern science and includes an empirical understanding of phenomena that brings tangible benefits of health and well-being (Pratibh膩praj帽膩, 2015: 8). Medicalised meditative practices were already started by Kuvalay膩nanda, which is discussed by Alter (2004). Yogendra (1897鈥�1989) also experimented with 腻蝉补苍补蝉, 辫谤腻峁嚹乱腻尘补 in his clinical work with patients (Alter, 2014: 37). Meditation in Ter膩panth also presents ancient meditative practices of 办腻测辞迟蝉补谤驳补 and 腻迟腻辫补苍腻, which were a part of Jaina asceticism.

The first part of chapter three looked at meditative developments in the early Ter膩panth (1760鈥�1881). From the time of the first 腻肠腻谤测补 叠丑颈办峁�u (1726鈥�1803) right up to 搁腻测补肠补苍诲补 (1790鈥�1851), the first to third heads of the Ter膩panth sect, there is no written record of lay or ascetic meditation practices besides ritualistic meditative forms, such 办腻测辞迟蝉补谤驳补 and 腻迟腻辫补苍腻. Jay腻肠腻谤测补 (1803鈥�1881), the fourth head of the Ter膩panth sect, contributed three compositions on meditation even though his system of meditation remains confined largely to ascetics to fulfil the soteriological aims, which are believed to have influenced Mah膩praj帽a in the development of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补.

The second part of chapter three described the evolving process of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 between 1944-1975 due to the motivation of 罢耻濒补蝉墨 and the personal quest of Mah膩praj帽a. It clearly revealed that the developmental process of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 was not a quick fix. Goenk膩鈥檚 influence on the development of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 can only be traced to 1974-75. Within these years Satya 狈腻谤腻测补苍补 Goenk膩 organised three 惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻 camps for Ter膩panthi ascetics. Mah膩praj帽a accepted that the practices at the 惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻 camps proved instrumental in recapturing this lost link of the Jaina meditation system, which he considered to be the greatest benefit of the camp (Mah膩praj帽a 1983: 81鈥�84). These comments of Mah膩praj帽a are a clear indication that the practice of 惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻 brought clarity to and an understanding of Jaina meditative practices, which are in the 蝉奴迟谤补 style in canonical texts. However, this does not mean that the 惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻 system was copied. One tradition may help another to understand the lost meaning of various concepts. The Jain, Buddhist and Hindu traditions verily influenced each other. I have refuted Goenk膩鈥檚 claim that 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 is nothing more than 鈥渕odified 惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻鈥� and shown that the claim has no solid basis to it.

笔谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 is rooted in Jaina classical, medieval and premodern canonical sources. However, Mah膩praj帽a made it clear that Goenk膩鈥檚 惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻 meditation assisted him to understand the lost meditative practice of 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-sutra, which is the oldest document of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补鈥檚 meditative practice. There are ample similarities noted by Mah膩praj帽a in Jaina and Buddhist meditative practices as both traditions had stemmed from 艣谤补尘补峁嘺 culture to which 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 and Buddha both belonged. These two traditions flourished from the same province of 鈥淕reater Magadha鈥�. Furthermore, there are philosophical and practical differences in both practices, which are mentioned in chapter three. Therefore, it is evident that Goenk膩鈥檚 claim that 辫谤别办峁Ｄ伝宄蟛饽宀圆� is a copy of 惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻 has no solid ground. Chapter four demonstrated the seven sources of the building blocks of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 to dispel the misconception that 辫谤别办峁Ｄ伝宄蟛饽宀圆� is a modification of Goenk膩鈥檚 惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻.

Chapter four analysed the initiation and development of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 in the Ter膩panth sect through the efforts of 罢耻濒补蝉墨 (1913鈥�1997) who composed 惭补苍辞苍耻艣腻蝉补苍补尘 (Instruction into the mind) and his disciple and spiritual heir Mah膩praj帽a (1920鈥�2010), who dedicated 30 years of his life to the research, self-experiments and development of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补. Mah膩praj帽a began meditative practices at an early age in 1944. His quest to trace the practices of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 through canonical literature and experience them in his own practice paved the way for the formation and development of the 辫谤别办峁Ｄ� method under 罢耻濒补蝉墨鈥檚 guidance and encouragement. Theory and practice of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 was expounded in Mah膩praj帽a鈥檚 (1975鈥�2010) works, especially those on Jaina yoga and meditation. Later, as 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 evolved, Mah膩praj帽a opened it to the laity.

According to 罢耻濒补蝉墨 and Mah膩praj帽a, 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 is beyond any doubt whatsoever, rooted in Jaina canon and connected to the practices of 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 in 膧肠腻谤腻峁単补-蝉奴迟谤补 1.9. Thus, scriptural authority of canonical and classical literature grants it authenticity and legitimacy. It was noted that Mah膩praj帽a developed 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 meditation based on ancient practices mentioned in Jaina canonical texts as well as under the influence of Hindu yogic systems, Goenk膩鈥檚 惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻 method of meditation and modern scientific links in the very last phase of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补.

Synthesising original canonical elements with new interpretations and modern innovations appears to have created, in this case, an effective modern meditative tool geared to the 鈥減urification of the psyche鈥�, promoting health and well-being, as well as the attainment of the ultimate goal of liberation, and so appealing to laity and monastics alike. It is observed that 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 is not only appealing to the domestic Indian population but also to a global audience.^[1]

Chapter five discussed six modern forms of Jaina meditation and argued that these present a renewed representation of ancient and medieval forms of meditation in a modern guise. It showed that yoga had a butterfly effect on all 艢惫别迟腻尘产补谤补 sects, bringing them to the forefront of the worldwide yoga movement. My main purpose is to compare and contrast all these modern Jaina meditations, which were developed during the last quarter of 20^th century and 21^st century with 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补.

All six systems aim at the 鈥減urification鈥� of one's soul based on Jaina karma theory. Each discusses some of the physical, mental and emotional benefits of their system of meditation, and share common terms based in modern Hindu yoga terminology. Modernisation in the case of these systems may be seen in their mode of presentation, modern yoga terminology and shared tantric practices that are aimed at both monastics and the laity, and often at Jainas and non-Jainas alike.

In the context of the history of Jaina meditation, 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 represents a new departure in which Mah膩praj帽a investigated Jaina canonical and classical texts, narratives, rituals, institutions, and ideologies, as well as Hindu sources, modern Buddhist practice, and Western medical science and therapies, in the modern context. He synthesized these materials during the twenty-five years of personal practice, based on his study and personal meditative experiences, and produced seminal material, including texts, in the form of a detailed system of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 specially adapted to the modern period, which was officially launched in 1975 in Jaipur. This was the first time in the history of Jainism that a system of Jaina meditation based on a precise methodology was formulated and presented to the general public.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

There are many 辫谤别办峁Ｄ� Meditation centres across the world. Many activities such as 笔谤别办峁Ｄ� Internation camps, sama峁嚹�鈥檚 over sea journey to organize study classes, workshops on 笔谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补.