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This chapter explores the history of meditation in the 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 sect. There has been little by way of analysis of the role of meditation in Jaina sects, including the prehistory and the formative phase of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补, a gap which this chapter addresses. It investigates the nature and prevalence of meditative practices of 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 monks immediately before^[1] and after the establishment of the 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 sect and those practices which were influential in the evolution of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补.

This chapter consists of three main parts. The first part examines early meditative 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 practices from 1760鈥�1881. This includes the practices of holding-the-breath meditation (s膩峁卻a r奴ndha 诲丑测腻苍补) of 叠丑颈办峁�u (1726鈥�1803), the penance of standing or lying down bare-bodied to take deliberate exposure of the midday blazing sun (腻迟腻辫补苍腻) of 叠丑颈办峁�u and his fellow monks, the abandonment of the body (办腻测辞迟蝉补谤驳补) of Hemar膩ja (1773鈥�1848) and Jay膩c膩rya鈥檚 (1803鈥�1881) two compositions on meditation. Through the examination of such precursors, the foundation of the meditative practices that underpin 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 will be explained and analysed, with the aim of answering key questions related to the development of meditation in the 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 tradition.

The second part of the chapter explores the evolution of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 and the effects of modernisation during the time of 罢耻濒补蝉墨^[2] (1913鈥�1997) and Mah膩praj帽a (1920鈥�2010) from 1944鈥�1975. An explanation of Mah膩praj帽a鈥檚 yogic and meditative practices since 1944, including 罢耻濒补蝉墨鈥檚 expressed concern for developing a Jaina meditation system in 1962, will be considered, to postulate the foundation of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补. Importantly, this discussion starts with the pre-辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 camps (艣颈惫颈谤补) by 罢耻濒补蝉墨 and Mah膩praj帽a as well as their innovative approaches that gained traction within the 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 community and later grew beyond boundaries both nationally and internationally.

I have adopted, in this thesis, the term 鈥楯aina modernism鈥�^[3] to describe the emergence of entirely new forms of meditation in the 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 tradition. This refers, in particular, to the contributions of 罢耻濒补蝉墨 and his motivations for creating a distinct type of Jaina meditation. Mah膩praj帽a鈥檚 development of this distinctly Jaina form of meditation is discussed in depth, including his personal meditative techniques of mantra, posture (腻蝉补苍补), breath control (辫谤腻峁嚹乱腻尘补), hand and body gestures (尘耻诲谤腻), various bodily locks (bandha), meditation (诲丑测腻苍补) and reflection (产丑腻惫补苍腻). I will examine Mah膩praj帽a鈥檚 meditative experiences and his use of textual and non-textual sources in the development of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补, as well as the impact of his encounter with S. N. Goenk膩鈥檚 惫颈辫补蝉蝉补苍腻 camp in 1974-75. Finally, I will explore the formulation and official launch of Mah膩praj帽a鈥檚 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 in 1975.

Sources

The development of the 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补 practice will be examined using the comprehensive volumes on the history of the 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补^[4] sect by Muni Buddhamal (1920鈥�2007), Jaya Anu艣腻蝉补苍补 (1981a) by Jay膩c膩rya and a series on the history of ascetics of the 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 tradition called 鈥�艢腻蝉补苍补 Samudra鈥� (26 parts) by Muni Navaratnamala (1921鈥�2004). The diaries of 罢耻濒补蝉墨 and Mah膩praj帽a, their biographies, autobiographies and other historical sources in the archives of the old 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 library (产丑补峁囜笉腻谤补) at L膩岣峚n奴峁� were carefully examined to investigate the reasons which prompted them to initiate 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补. In addition, recorded audio-tape interviews were conducted in India with traditional Jaina scholars who were Mah膩praj帽a鈥檚 early collaborators. These early collaborators included monks, nuns and lay followers of the 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 sect. These interviewees are a valuable resource for gaining new and little known insights into the genesis of 辫谤别办峁Ｄ�-诲丑测腻苍补, particularly in the formative phase of its development.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

The dialogue between 叠丑颈办峁�u and his guru Ragun膩tha, see in section 3.2.

[2]:

罢耻濒补蝉墨 is the ninth 膧肠腻谤测补 of the 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 sect.

[3]:

鈥楯aina modernism鈥� introduced by Peter Fl眉gel, see (2007, 2012a).

[4]:

罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 k膩 滨迟颈丑腻蝉补 written in Hindi by Muni Buddhamala in three volumes.