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[Full title: Manners, Customs and Beliefs (in ancient India); (1): Manners]

The society consists of elders, equals and inferiors. In the daily business one has to contact persons of various trades. Therefore the first thing which automatically come out of one's mouth is to address a person in a particular way and to behave with him in a particular manner. Thus the Paumacariya reveals as to how the ancient Indian people behaved with one another on such occasions. It mentions that in addressing one another some particular words were used which denoted either respect, honour and reverence or modesty, sympathy, regard and love. It was followed by a salute to the elders or the superiors and blesings to the younger or inferior ones. Thus the state of affairs proves that the people whether low or high, inferior or superior occupied a worthy position in the civilization of ancient India. Addresses: The elders used to address the younger ones as follows. The sons were addressed by their parents as 'kumara' (99. 21) or 'putta' (putra 31.81; 98. 21) or 'puttaya' (putraka 31. 96; 100. 36). In the endearing terms they were addressed as 'vaccha' (vatsa 31. 73) or 'vacchaya' (100. 37). The maternal grandfather is said to be using the same term for his nephew (50.15). An elder brother would call his younger brother by his name (112. 12) or by endearing terms 'vaccha' or 'vacchaya' (45. 20; 111. 10; 37. 8). Sometimes

376 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM honorific word 'deva' (111. 15) and admirative words 'sundara' (111. 18) or 'supurisa' (supurusa 14. 16) were used. The elder brother's wife addressed her younger brother-in-law by his name (63.11), or by relation 'devara' (80. 54) or used an auspicious term 'bhadda' (bhadra 76. 20). The younger ones generally addressed their elders as below. The children used to address their father as 'taya' (tata 31.76), 'mahajasa' (mahayasah 27.17), and to their mother as 'ammo' (ambe 31.95; 98.22), the younger brother to his elder brother as 'sami (svamin 45.18), 'pahu' (prabho 55.5), 'mahajasa' (44.50), to the elder sister as 'devi' (99.42), and to the wife of elder brother as 'bhadde' (bhadre 37.37). The maternal grandfather was addressed as 'ajjaya' (aryaka 50.17) and the maternal-uncle as 'mamaya' (mamaka 99.31). The latter term was used by the son-in-law also in addressing his fatherin-law (24.22; 38.46), on account of marrying the daughter of the meternal-uncle. In the case of the equals the following terms were used. The husband used to address his wife with an auspicious term 'bhadde' (30.35) or an admiring term 'sundari' (16 74; 26.83; 31.71), while the wife addressed their huband as 'naha' (natha 16 75%; 68.41), 'sami' (46.28), 'samiya' (94.65), 'pahu' (68.42) or 'mahajasa' (94.66; 31.125). It is noteworthy that a wife did not feel shy in mentioning the name of her husband. Sita while requesting Ravana to save her husband from being killed, mentions her husband's name-Padma (69.27). The young girl-friend was addressed as 'bale' (17.15) and the woman friend as 'hala' (hale 100.52) or 'bahine' (bhagini 100.54). The king would call the wife of another king by addressing her as 'laacchi' (laksmi 95.18) or 'bhadde' (95.60). At the time of showing sympathy to her, the minister of another king is said to have been addressing her as 'vacche' (vatse 95.17). The person inferior in status addressed their superior as follows. A king was addressed as 'sami' 'pahu' or 'deva' by his feudal-lords (45.19; 45.2; 95.5), ministers, warriors (81.8; 81.14), spies (86.23) or messengers (45.33; 27.11; 6.24). The queen was addressed as 'samini' (svamini 94.58) or 'devi' (94.62). These terms indicate the authority subjects. A woman of very high status was servants as 'bhadde' (95.6), 'sundari' (95.9), of the royal pair over the addressed by the king's 'devi' (95. 13) and 'suyanu' (sutanu 63 13). The members of the royal

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 377 family addressed her as 'kallani" (kalyani), 'suhakamme', (subhakarme) and 'mahapujje' (mahapujye 96. 9). The king used to address his feudal-lord as 'vaccha' (45.4; 45. 24). Reverential persons such as monks etc. were addressed as 'mahajasa' (30. 57). These addresses were used as far as the relations were unrestrained. Otherwise they took an abusive turn and the persons, to whatever status they may belong, were addressed in insulting terms. Anjana while being censured by her mother-in-law was addressed as 'pave' (pape 17. 3), 'dutthasile' (dustasile 17. 6), In the battlefield Dusana calls Laksmana as 'pava' papa (45.9); Bhamandala to the envoy of Ravana as 'pavaduya', 'kolhuya', 'duvvayanavasa (durvacanavasa 65. 26), 'dutthapasu' (dustapaso) and 'acaritto' (acaritra 65. 27). On the occasion of reproaching anyone the term 'adhama' was used (dhiddhi te Rakkhasahama 68. 25). If any male person attempted to force talk with an unwilling woman, then she usually turned her face away and then talked with him (46. 6). Salutes The above mentioned terms were the expressions through speech. Besides these addresses, the expression to one's feeling of reverence, modesty, symathy or love was further manifested by some physical acts. Obeisance was a necessary form of accost on the part of a inferior when he met a superior and on the part of the superior it was necessary to endear or bless the inferior. Thus the Paumacariya reveals that on occasion of any meeting, an inferior paid his respects by bowing his head to the superior whether he was a father (34. 56), mother (79. 28; 98. 71-72), elder brother (79. 14; 38. 50; 94. 2), or elder 94.2), sister (76. 22). The same manners were displayed when a king was paid respects by his ministers (5. 177), envoys (6.16), messengers (8. 227), or a woman of high status or other inferiors (76. 26). Another method was to raise the joined palms on the head and then to bow to the superior (32. 46), or to prostrate and touch the feet of the superiors (6.24; 16. 71; 76. 19; 100. 32; 55. 46; 65. 11; 6 23; 63. 18) of various circles. The younger ones or the inferiors saluted the elders or the superiors by prostrating at their feet and took their due permission (16.35; 31.93, 101, 103, 104;19.13, 34, 59; 16.89; 71.1; 31.102), before departing from them on any expedition. On the occasion of renouncing the world one used to take formal permission of the relations as well as the servants (3. 135: 5. 57).

378 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM On departure of the younger ones, the elder kissed on their forehead (86. 14) and blessed them for the success of the work (16. 34; 86. 15). The departing person before commencing their journey used to visit the temple to pay their homage to the Jinas (89. 13) or used to recite the Namaskara-formula (97. 23). On the occasion of any meeting after a long time, the elders used to embrace the younger ones (30.88; 32. 49; 98. 72; 30-80; 76. 22; 76. 19; 30. 81) or kissed on their forehead (34. 56; 79. 29; 98. 72; 79. 14). On such occasions the breasts of the mothers let loose some drops of milk when they met their sons (30.94; 79 30). It was quite a natural flow. The Jaina monks were paid obeisance by circumambulating additionally (3. 5, 10; 3.102; 41. 7). The monks on their part blessed the devotees (3. 6). The devotee bowed his head each time he enquired something of him (13. 42). At the time of going back the devotee recircumambulated the religious person (5.40) and then took his leave. The inferior sometimes hailed some superior of extraordinary merits by expressing 'svasti' (satthim karei 35 62) and by offering a handful of flowers.