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[Full title: Indian Subcontinent; 2: Southern India and Sri Lanka; (1): Ancient Settlements of Kanara Coast (Karnataka)]

The western coastland called Kanara commences from the Karwar Peninsula and melds into the Malabar coast south of Mangalore (or the river Netravali) The Kanara tract, divided into two by the present Uttara Kannada and Dakshin Kannada districts of the state of Karnataka, stretches 320 km (Fig. 33) Recent discoveries of Early Historic sites on the Kanara coast are beginning to throw light upon the early maritime tradition of this important littoral-region. Surprisingly, the Kanara coast seems to have been largely passed over by the Periplus which, after Chersonesus, directly refers to the coast of Damirica and its first market-towns Naura and Tyndis (Periplus Maris Erythraei 53). The commentators on the Periplus such as Schoff (1912/74:205), Huntingford (1980:116) and Casson (1989:22-29, 294-299) have all associated Damirica with the Malabar (Kerala) coast. It is the identification by certain scholars of Naura, the first market-town of Damirica, with the modern port of Honnavar in Uttara Kannada which raises the question of the inclusion of Kanara within the domain of Damirica (S.R. Rao in Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1968-69:24) Schoff (1912/74:204), on the other hand, locates Naura at Cannanore in northern Kerala. A consensus on this issue is awaited. Schoff (1912/74:203-204) implies that the 'omisson' of the Kanara in the Periplus was because the pirates made the region inaccessible. Pliny (N.H. VI, 26)

AREA OF MAP WHITE IS. PIGEON is Alsolated KARWAR -CHERSONESUS with is. of NIRTRAS (Pliny) or NITRA (Geographia) GOKARNA PARASURAMATIRTHA HONNAVARA NAURA HAIGUNDA ISLAND BHATKAL ARABIAN SEA LEGEND KARWAR MODERN PLACE NAME CHERSONESUS PLACE NAME IN ANCIENT TEXT COONDAPUR BASRUR HATTIANGADI MALPE MAUPPALA . UDIPI 'UDYAVARA ODARA Ancient Kingdom of Alvainedd or Olokhoira MANGALORE MAGANUR OR MANGAROUTH Fig. 33. Location of Early Historic ports on the Kanara coast. 203

204 also makes a reference to pirates in this area when he mentions their stronghold on the island of Nitrias (present day Nitran near Karwar, Fig. 33) Ptolemy in his Geographia, names the whole coast south of Sopara as Pirate Coast (McCrindle 1884:327). In a Greek play contained in the Papyrus Oxyrhynchus, a document of the 2 nd century A.D. found in Egypt, scholars have detected passages in old Kannada language (Tulu) which speak of a Greek lady taken hostage by pirates? on the Indian coast (Hultzsch 1904:399-405, Shivananda 1995:288-293). Whatever may have been the attendent dangers on the ancient Kanara coast, it does not detract from the fact that good harbours existed here in the Early Historic period. To quote from Poonacha and Visweswara (1991:67) 'The geo-setting has gifted this (Kanarese) coastal strip with a unique combination of different types of harbours. A chain of conducive gorges, caused due to forested monsoon floods, throughout the coastal strip well-connected with hinterlands rich with up-ghat forest produces helped these places grow as port-towns.' In the last two decades, explorations along the Karnataka coast have brought to notice a number of Early Historic sites. Though no comprehensive survey of the Kanara coast has been undertaken, nevertheless discoveries of coastal sites reported constitute a'substantial body of data. Below, a review of Early Historic coastal settlements of Kanara is presented. The review consolidates the archaeological data gathered from prospections and interrelates modern place-names with port-sites mentioned in the ancient texts (Fig. 33). Karwar Port Sharply projecting coastal tract. It is this projection which may have influenced the Hellenes to name it Chersonesus or peninsula in Greek (Schoff 1912/74:202; McCrindle in Sastri 1927:47-48). The anchorage at Karwar is a deep-water creek (Poonacha and Visweswara 1991:67). No Early Historic deposits reported yet. Pigeon Island/Nitran: Schoff (1912/74:203) identifies it with the White Island mentioned in the Periplus (sec.53). He also associates Pigeon Is/Nitran with the Island of Nitras mentioned by Pliny (N.H. VI,26) or Nitra listed in the Geographia (McCrindle 1884:327) No Early Historic deposits reported yet. This island lies approx. 15 km off the coast of Karwar. 4 Gokarna: Coastal settlement Traditionally identified as the sacred Parasuramatirtha (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1973-74:17). S.R. Rao and A. Sundara (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1973-74:24) discovered Neolithic rock-shelters in the hills in the area Sundara (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1975-76:21) came upon several Siva temples at Gokarna which he has dated to c. 5 th century A.D.

205 Honnavara Port. Situated at the mouth of the River Sharavati As discussed above, Honnavara has been associated with Naura of the Periplus. No Early Historic deposits reported yet. Haigunda island: Ancient anchorage. This island is situated in the middle of the estuarine channel of the River Sharavati, some 20 km east of Honnavara. Pottery and structures dating to the early centuries of the Christian Era have been observed here. The structures have been tentatively identified by the explorers as remains of a stupa, a lighthouse (?) atop a hill and a probable warehouse complex near the beach (Poonacha and Visweswara 1991: 69, Sundara 1992: 100-101). Bhatkal: Port Early Historic site excavated by the Karnataka State Archaeology Dept. A complete amphora of Mediterranean origin has been excavated from this port-site (Alok Tripathi, ASI: personal communication). Basrur Port Located 8 km east of modern Coondapur on the southern bank of the Gangolli river (Gururaja Bhatt 1969:3). Early Historic occupation reported by Poonacha and Visveswara (1991:68). Hattiangadi Coastal settlement. Gururaja Bhatt (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1973-74:17) discovered 'early historical habitation sites with remains of brick structures.' Subsequently, Sundara (1992 97-101) exploring about the inlet on which Hattiangadi stands also located brick structures dated to 1 st-2 nd century A.D. at a place called Aramane Dibba' or 'Place of Eminence.' Malpe: Natural port. Located 7 km west of modern Udipi (Fig. 33). The Greek farce contained in the Papyrus Oxyrhynchus dated to the 2 nd century A.D. has passages in the Kanarese dialect Tulu (discussed above) which make mention of one 'Malpinaik' (Hultzsch 1904:399-405; Shivananda 1995:289) Gururaja Bhatt (1969:23) has surmised that the Malpi Nayaka mentioned in this play may either be the Alupa ruler himself or his subordinate who must have been incharge of the administration of that area, chiefly the port administration.' Malpe has also being linked to the settlement of Malippala mentioned in the Geographia (Shivananda 1995:291). No habitation or archaeolgical deposit of Early Historic period has been reported at Malpe. This harbour seems to have served the Early Historic settlement at Udyavara, 6 km south-west of Udipi. Udyavara Ancient capital of the Alupa dynasty. Early Historic site. The site is situated 6 km south-west of modern Udipi. S.R. Rao and A. Sundara, who were the first to explore the ruins at Udyavara, describe the site as covering an "area of approximately 500 x 100 m... enclosing within its orbit a well-defined citadel

206 known as Balergudda, with at least three entrance gateways, and a 'lower town' facing the sea. Large quantities of pottery, consisting of the Megalithic Black and Red Ware, black polished, plain red and cream wares were observed from the lower town and sections of the citadel mound" (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1968-69:24). The ceramic evidence suggests a 3 rd-4 th century A.D. date for the site according to Poonacha and Visweswara (1991:69). Rao and Sundara also report an early Shiva temple at Udyavara (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1968- 69-24) According to Gururaja Bhatt (1969:23) the 'apsidal structure of the temple can be dated to the early centuries A.D. Bhatt further suggests that this temple corroborates the mention of the Someshwara diety at Odara in the Papyrus Oxyrhyncus. The settlement of Odara in the Greek farce carrying Tulu passages is easily identified with Udyavara Udyavara was, in all likelihood, the capital of the Alupas, the ruling dynasty of South Kanara in the early centuries A.D. (Gururaja Bhatt 1969:23). Alvakheda was the kingdom of the Alupas of which ancient Udyavara was capital. Alvakheda is Olokhoira of Ptolemy (Schwartzberg 1992: Plate III.C.5, pp. 24). 嗉� Mangalore Port. Situated on the north bank of the River Netravali. Mangalore can be associated with the settlement called Magamur mentioned in the Geographia and Mangarouth in the Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopluestes The river Netravali has been identified by Yule (in McCrindle in Sastri 1927:48), Gururaja Bhatt (1969:12-13) and Schwartzberg (1992: Plate III.C.5, p.24) with the settlement of Nitrias in the Geographia. We have discussed the association of Nitrias with Pigeon island/Nitran Immediately south of Mangalore/River Netravali begins the Malabar coast.