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branch of knowledge. Nyaya philosophy describes it as the knowledge of an
object through the medium of the knowledge of some mark by virtue of a
relation of invariable concomitance between the two. Kesava Misra shows its
two divisions - sv膩rth膩num膩峁嘺 and pararth膩num膩na. Regarding hetv膩bh膩sa
Kesava Misra has presented an elaborate discussion. According to him, there
are five types of hetv膩bh膩sa namely, asiddha, viruddha, anaik膩ntika,
prakara峁嘺sama and kalatyayapadi峁�ta. He also presented different
subdivisions of these hetv膩bh膩sas.
Upam膩na is another independent source of knowledge accepted by
Naiy膩yikas. It is the means by which we gain the knowledge of a thing
through its similarity to another thing previously well known. According to
Kesava Misra, upamana is the instrument of the cognition upamiti. Upamiti is
grasped of the relation between the word and the thing denoted by it. It is not
ascertained by other pram膩峁嘺s perception, inference etc. it is a separate
辫谤补尘腻峁嘺.
Verbal testimony is the last or fourth means of valid knowledge
according to Naiyayikas. Gautama defines testimony as the instrument of a
trust-worthy person, who is competent to guide others in the performance of
their duties and abstention from sins for the attainment of good and the
avoidance of evil. In this regard Kesava Mi艣ra follows Gautama. He gives a
descriptive discussion on 膩k膩峁僰sa, yogyat膩 and sannidhi in connection with
verbal testimony. Without these three a sentence cannot be made. According
to Kesava Misra other pram膩nas are come under these four pram膩峁嘺s.