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We have explained in the previous chapter that in the Rgveda, ayas meant metal in general and not iron specifically. As a matter of fact, iron was discovered in India much later; the Rgveda mentioned gold and silver specifically, and ayas mentioned, therein probably corresponded to copper and bronze. Sukla Yajurveda (S.YV) or Vajasaneyi Samhita (va.Sam) was probably the first Indian literature to mention syama r iron specifically, along with a few other metals: hiranya (gold), menaja (silver), loha (copper), sisa (lead) and

III-6 trapu (tin) (S.YV. 18.13). (s.xv. In the Atharva Veda (Atharvaveda), a cosmic supernatural being has been described to have different part of the body resembling different metals including syama syamamayah asya mamsani lohitamasya lohitam trapu bhasma haritam varnah puskaramasya gandhah (Atharvaveda.11.8.7-8) Do the above references indicate that these portions of the text in SYV. and Atharvaveda. were collated after 12 th century B.C., the earliest date for archaeological specimen of iron (syama) in India? We are sure that loha (copper), sisa (lead) and trapu (tin) were known and used in India much earlier, even though these names do not appear in the Rgveda. Syama appears in many other literatures such as Atharvaveda 9.5.4, S.Bra 13.2.2.16, Ka. Sam 18.10, Mai. Sam. 2.11.5 etc. At a later stage, iron was also known as Krsnayas or Karsnayas or black metal (Jai.Bra. Up, 3.17.3) A very clear reference is obtained in the Chandogya Upanisad: nakhakrntanena sarvakarsnayasam vijnatam known krsnayasam iti evam satyam Paude (Cha. Up.6.1.6) 'By knowing a nailcutter all things mad of iron become ... Iron as such is the reality'. The previous passage in Cha.Up. (6.1.5) mentions that by knowing a copper bead or lohamani all things made of copper or loha (red metal) are known. Another interesting passage in Cha.Up. (4.17.7) provides interesting lessons in metallurgy:

III-7 'One would join gold with the help of borax (lavana), silver with the help of gold, tin (trapu) with the help of silver, lead (sisa) with the help of tin, copper (loha) with the help of lead and timber with copper or leather'. Here the word loha has been misconstrued as iron by several scholars. Loha, lohayas or lohitayas is clearly copper, the red metal (5.Bra. 5.4.1.1. and 2, 13.2.2.18; Mai.Sam. 2.11.5, 4.4.4; Ka.Sam. 18.10).