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After considering the agricultural, the forest products and the occupations that were connected with it, we may now proceed to consider the various industries which depended on it and other raw materials. industries were run in their houses, on a small scale, by labourers and skilled artisans. Many delicate articles These were produced by them. The metal industry, the textile, the jewellery particularily attained high skill. Most of 60. Nirnaya Sagar 5.2.174, 1714.24, 10.1.106, 12.6.325,326, 4.1.10. 10.7.22, 13.1.98. 61. Ibid. 12.12.7, 18.4.131, 12.1.7. 62. Ibid. 5.1.179, 10.5.313, 5.2.228, 7.9.55, 15.2.77, 8.4.204, 7.1.42, 4.1.90, 10.7.22, 3.4.356. 12.4.265. lbid 7.2.76. 63

210 these industries and the skill in it were handed over from the father to the son. Textile, Spinning and Weaving The calico, silken, the woolen and the embroidered 64 cloths have been mentioned. People used fine cloth for 65 the inner dress. Many garments (pulaka) have been ment- 66 67 ioned. The kambala (blanket) is also mentioned. Coverlets 68 and cushions have been mentioned. Ginning, pressing and spinning was done. Weavers are mentioned. We do not get actual reference to the art of dying but it appears to be an important industry. Red-robes black and dark-blue 70 garments, yellow-silk is often mentioned. Garments curtains and other things are also mentioned. house of a courtesan there was a canopy 73 __ 71 In the adorned with 72 jewels. The washerman (dhavaka) with his ass (khara) is mentioned. Tailoring industry along with the above industries was probably a flourishing one. Garments 74 were sold in the market. 75 from China. The Chinam suka was imported 64. Nirnaya Sagar 13.1.165, 15.5.194/1, 12.6.339, 7.4.124, 10.8.118, 7.1.2, 6.3.53, 7.9.89,1266.339, 6.3.165, 10.1.80. 65. Ibid. 12.36.43. 66. Ibid. 12.36.43, 12.7.253, 7.9.75, 12.18.16. 67. Ibid. 10.8.118, 6.3.165. 68. Ibid. 12.15.38-39. 691 Ibid. 9.2.92. 70. Ibid. 9.5.113, 12.6.364,283, 12.19.97, 12.19.95,97. 12.4.22, 4.2.63, 12.6.364. 71. Ibid. 12.18.16, 7.4.124, 10.7.16,12.15.39,12.19.95. 15.2.131,132. 72. Ibid. 10.1.80. 73. Ibid. 12.5.206, also 10.6.19, 10.7.130. 74. Ibid. 2.5.150, 7.9.72, 12.11.17, 75. Ibid. 8.1.131, 177, 7.9.75,89.

211 Food, Pastry and Brewing Salt (lavanam) is mentioned with its white, flowery 76 variety. It was used in delicious soups and elixirs prepared by mixing condiment. Fish and meat, was obtained 77 in abudance and was sold in town-markets. Meat was also sold in shops. A certain flesh-seller named Dharmavy apta used to sell flesh of deer and other animals in a certain 79 town. Flour and Cakes (apupika) prepared out of wheatflour were sold in the market at Ujjayini. But no flourmills have been mentioned. mentione Grinding was probably done by shiteshi grinding-stones. 80 Sugar, jaggery, molasses and honey was used in meals. 81 Sweets (modakas) are mentioned. Oil was sold in the 82 shops. It was extracted from oil-seeds. Food and sweets were also sold in the market. Liquor was produced on a 83 large scale. Its many varieties are mentioned. Men as well as women used to take it. On festival occasions it was consumed on a larger scale by the people rich as well 84 as poor and kings. 76. Nirnaya Sagar 10.9.142/2, 10.5.40-43. 77. Ibid. 10.6.213, 18.4.230, 10.3.50, 5.3.158, 14.3.10, 12.8.106, 107. 78. Ibid. 9.6.181, 185. 79. Ibid. 18.2.74, 10.6.204. 80. Ibid. 12.20.39, 14.2.96, 98, 1.2.56. 81. Ibid. 1.6.115, 10.8.71, 74, 10.9.186, 14.2.96. 82. Ibid. 10.5.189, 190. 83. Ibid. 12.35.113, 8.2.63, 9.4.199, 4.1.6, 3.1.8, 3.6.230. 84. Ibid. 14.2.50, 6.7.13, 3.4.26, 10.8.101, 6.7.93, 7.4.33, 13.1.160.

Metals and Metallurgy 212 289.99 Was The metal industry fairly well developed. The goldN smith (hemakara) had a flourishing trade. The Weller 85 he (ratnatatvadhaya or ritibaddha) is mentioned. Purified gold was sold. | Among the precious metals and jewellery, mention has been made of gold, silver, diamonds, emeralds, 86 (marakata) pearls, crystals and jewels. Various kinds of 87 precious stones are also mentioned. Various gold ornaments such as mekhala, hara, karnabhushana, muktahara, ekavali, kataka, kantha, ratnakankana, haralata, valaya, karnapura, 88 kundala, karnika etc. are mentioned. Gold ornaments were set with gems, the art of cutting and polishing of which 89 was known. At times the name of the owner was engraved 90 on them. These and such other ornaments were made for men and women. 91 also made. Ornaments for adorning the animals were and The rich and the kings used golden vessels farsils 92 for eating and drinking. 85. Nirnaya Sagar 5.1.178-179, 5.2.174. 86. Ibid. 18.2.156, 12.6.339, 13.1.98, 9.6.49. 87. Ibid. 1611.14,15, 12.17,48, 4.2.216, 12.4.7. 88. Ibid. 17.3.82, 14.1.12, 8.2.152, 12.31.35, 3.4.17, 7.5.104, 9.4.108, 4.2.76, 17.4.106, 13.1.165,9.5.133, 12.2.141, 4.2.224, 15.5.118, 10.5.24, 7.3.16, 4.1.82, 18.1.107. 89. Ibid. 5.2.152, 3.4.316, 18.4.292, 18.1.107, 12.8.102. 90. Ibid. 10.1.10, 2.1.73, 91. Ibid. 3.4.88, 3.5.67. 92. Ibid. 15.2.77, 5.2.228, 3.4.356-357, 4.1.7, 10.7.22, 10.5.279, 8.7.204, 15.2.126,125, 4.3.41, 42.

Silver and jewelled-plates (ratna-patras) are also 213 93 94 mentioned. Lamps of precious stones are also mentioned. for other articles made from Of other articles made from gold we may mention a mouse, 95 21 or deer (hema-mriga) and a boy. A Siva-linga made out of a dark coloured precious stone and a priceless image of Ganesha (ratnavinayaka) 96 is mentioned. Bowls carved out of precious stones are 97 mentioned. The gold-smiths of Varanasi, Sravasti, Kasi, Pratisthana, Tamralipti, Pataliputra, Vallabhi, Mathura, Ayodhaya, Kanchi and many other commerical centres had a flourishing business. Other Metals The metal industry was also in a flourishing state. Household materials such as pots, pans, bowls and goblets were shaped out of gold, silver, copper, brass, bronze and 98 amalgamated metals. Copper melting is referred to. Iron Exect, ?1. wrid altip 99 chains, (Srinkhala), doors, wheels, spikes, hilt, cells, pegs, nails, balances, bars, bolts, spade or shovel, trident, 93. Nirnaya Sagar 10.5.313, 10.7.22. 94. Ibid. 12.6.338, 9.1.186. 95. Ibid. 18.1.107, 109, 12.27.91-92. 96. Ibid. 12.6.325-326, 15.2.125. 97. Ibid. 4.1010. 98. Ibid. 5.1.179, 10.5.313, 7.9.55, 5.2.228, 15.2.77,125, 7.1.42, 10.5.48,180, 3.4.356, 10.5.190, 279, 8.4.204, 4.1.90, 10.7.22. 99. Ibid. 7.1.84.

214 iron-bar (ayodanda) and various weapons such as arrows, javelins, maces and coat of mail, are mentioned throughout the Kathasaritsagara The anvil and the furnace of the iron-smith was there. Ivory-Work This was also an important industry. The ivory-carver (danta-ghataka) has been mentioned. One ivory-carver named Sangramavardhan in the services of the king of Kalinga is mentioned. 101 Various ivory articles were prepared and carved. Prince Mrigankadatta Prince Mrigankadatta is said to have sat on an ivory-throne (dantidantasana) in the assembly-hall of 102 the Bhilla king Dirghapishachchaya. Elephants were slain shacher Vindhya for tusks. In the Vindhaya mountains great heaps of elephant tusks along with deer-skin and musk are always 103 said to have been collected. The aboriginals of this area traded in these articles. Pottery The potter (kumbhakarika) made bowls, plates, pans jars (kumbha), toys and vessels of various shapes and 104 kinds. They generally lived outside the city. The potter 100. Nirnaya Sagar 12.4.268, 6.3.93, 10.5.108, 6.7.44, 7.1.42, 12.8.155, 8.7.14, 3.5.27, 9.6.147, 9.4.223, 6.1.169, 4.9.18, 12.4.52, 10.5,48. 101. Ibid. 12.8.81, 82, 85, 90. 102. Ibid. 12.35.117. 103. Ibid. 12.35.42, 9.6.49, 12.6.173, 4.2.96. 104. Ibid. 7.2.120, 12.26.91, 18.2.74, 16.3.68.

215 had his wheel. The potter used to bring the above things 105 in the city and sell them. Building Industry We have very few references to the stone-cutter and masons. But since big palaces, many storied buildings, parks, ramparts, bathing ghats on the rivers, temples 106 and many other constructions are mentioned in the various stories from the Kathasaritsagara, we may conclude thatt the building industry was in a flourishing state. Mud, morter and plaster was also known. The white plaster of the royal buildings of many capital and trading cities are mentioned. Latice windows, carved pillars, high towers are also Lati 108 mentioned. A female-figure of extraordinary beauty was cut by an artist from Vardhamanapura on the pillor of a 109 Siva-temple. A great lake is mentioned to have been 110 constructed by King Bramhadatta of Varanasi. A painter (chitrakrita) and a sculptor (rupakrita) are said to have drawn and carved a figure of Gauri on a polished 111 pillar, of the Mahar kala temple. 107 105. Nirnaya Sagar 4.1.134, 6.1.39, 6.1.39, 6.3.88. 106. Ibid. 12.28.18, 12.8.90, 12.19.16, 12.13.31, 12.6.78, 12.13.30, 15.2.3, 5.1.217, 12.11.50, 5.2.228,14.2.160, 5.3.285. 107. Ibid. 17.1.19, 12.4.26, 6.5.25, 6.1.136-138. 108. Ibid. 12.28.18, 12.36.163, 12.8.119, 10.2.58, 12.3.88, 12.13.30, 3.4.13, 10.8.107, 4.3.61, 12.18.16, 14.1.61. 109. Ibid. 18.4.140. 110. Ibid. 17.1.39. 111. Ibid. 7.3.9.

216 Carpentry The carpenter (takshaka) had heavy work in those days. They were employed in wood-work. The carpenter made furniture, constructed houses, built ships, made 112 carts and many other things. Production of toys was a flourishing business. Temples, elephant, dalls (daruputrikas 113 puppet made out of woods are mentioned. Various wooden mechanical toys are also referred to Two brother carpenters from Bahubala who were skilled in making mechanical contrivances are mentioned. They made chariots with machanical contrivance and a pair of mechanical swans and by controlling the pair with strings removed many 115 diamonds from the treasury of the king. ? (These carpenters propably built big as well as small ships. The wooden ramparts of the city were also 116 constructed by them. Logs of wood were cut by them. 117 Maces and other weapons from wood were made. Bows and 118 arrows were made of good bamboo. These carpenters used 119 various tools such as hatch, chisel, mallet, saw etc. 112. Nirnaya Sagar 5.2.228, 10.1.80, 1.6.40, 3.1.38, 11.4.41,101. 5.3.7, 12.7.165, 5.1.29, 6.3.19, 10.4.12. 113. Ibid. 10.4.27, 2.4.19, 21,5.1.29, 5.1.42,43. 114. Ibid. 6.3.38, 6.3.19-20, 45. 18.1.107, 115. Ibid. 7.9.25-28. 116. Ibid. 10.4.28. 117. Ibid. 5.1.121, 8.7.14, 9.3.21, 8.5.44-75. 118. Ibid. 6.1.8. 119. Ibid. 6.6.63, 10.4.28.

Light and Fuel 217 The cities, the houses, the kings' palace, its gates 120 were lighted during night. Lamps in the lying-in-chambers, in the sleeping rooms and many other parts of the palace 121 are mentioned. A ghee-lamp (deepaghruta) is said to be burning in the temple of good Mahakala near Ujjayini. 122 X 123 A candle burning in the house of a villager is mentioned. 鉁� 鉁� candle Fuel was collected from the jungle by the fuelcollecter (Kashtabharika) and was brought and sold in the 124 125 town. His axe is mentioned. Charcoal was produced in 126 127 the jungle and sold in the city market. Logs of wood in a cemetery outside Ujjayini are mentioned. Cane and Leaf Work The basket-makers and the mat-makers went and roamed in the jungle and cut bamboos and canes and brought them to the town and made many household articles out of them. A thicket of reeds (valuvana) on the bank of the 128 n Ganges is mentioned. Baskets (Karadikas) were made. Rope- 120. Nirnaya Sagar 14.2.61, 12.2.61, 6.6.63, 6.8.48, 18.5.56,57, 9.1.186, 12.36.208, 4.3.62. 6:20:14186,2 12.6.338, 121. Ibid. 12.36.206, 9. 122. Ibid. 18.2.75. 123. Ibid. 6.6.63. 124. Ibid. 7.5.176, 10.1.9,10, 6.3.154, 7.3.56. 125. Ibid. 18.4.61, 6.2.157. 126. Ibid. 10.5.5. 127. Ibid. 14.4.89. 128. Ibid. 12.34.140-143.

218 makers-even though not mentioned appear to be at work since ropes used on ships and in houses and strings of The broom (margani) 129 various kinds have been mentioned. 130 is mentioned. Dyes, Gums, Drugs and Chemicals The lac that was used for sealing letters by the 131 kings and for other uses is mentioned. Various dyes were used for dying the cloth and for painting which was generally patronized by the kings. The royal class used to receive special training in the art since we have references to many kings and princesses being expert in this 133 art. i Poisonous drugs, herbs, and medicinal plants 134 have been mentioned. 135 Oils, unguents and perfumes have been mentioned. Ladies used to paint their faces with red colour. It is mentioned that the face of Kalingasena was painted and it was robbed of its colour when Mana savega kissed 136 her. 129. Nirnaya Sagar 12.8.119, 10.1.110, 10.9.19,105, 10.2.124, 3.4.299, 6.3.38, 7.9.36. 130. Ibid. 6.1.91. 131. Ibid. 3.8.71, 15.1.1. 132. Ibid. 4.1.11, 4.2.63, 12.8.113, 1.5.29,30, 9.1.123, 12.5.294, 9.5.34. 133. Ibid. 8.1.52, 9.5.68, 18.3.60, 12.16.14, 17.4.24,26. 134. Ibid. 10.2.102, 6.7.152, 12.3.43, 8.2.50,117. 135. Ibid. 9.5.62, 2.4.248, 13.1.88-89, 13.1.88-89, 12.7.232,16.2.31, 12.13.31, 17.4.89, 13.1.56. 136. Ibid. 6.7.208.

219 Leather Industry The leather industry was in an advanced stage. Various things were made out of leather. Leather bags were used 137 for transporting merchandice on camel-back. Saddles, boots, shields, ropes, garments, baskets and various other things 138 were manufactured on a large scale. Flower and Perfumery Flowers of various kinds are often mentioned in the various stories from the Kathasaritsagara The garland-makers (malaka- 139 ras) used to make beautiful and attractive garlands which were used by ladies. Flowers were also used as ornaments. They were placed round the neck in the hair and on the 140 ears. The sandal-wood the Kasturi and the agaru were wold 141 in the market. The gandhikas had a good business.)] Other Occupations Apart from the men engaged in various crafts, occupations and manufacturing-work, a substansial portion of the population was engaged in other minor occupation and professions. They also must be studied. 137. Nirnaya Sagar 10.6.195.9. 138. Ibid. 9.3.12, 12.34.74, 10.8.100. 139. Ibid. 18.4.263, 3.5.99, 10.6.227, 3.2.31. 140. Ibid. 6.7.166, 9.5.62, 7.5.112, 12.18.11, 13.1.88, 18.2.128, 18.5.50. 141. Ibid. 127.232, 12.11.17.

220 There were teachers (acharyas or up 142 ayas), 143 upadhay physicians (vaidyas, bhishakas or bhishaka varyas), bhishakes 144 surgeons, fortune-tellers, mahurtikas, the treasure- 145 146 finders (midhan-darshis), painters (chitrakaras), musicians 147 148 148 (vadakas), Jugglers, acrobats, dancers, snake-charmers, 150 151 well-diggers (kupakhanakas) washermen (dhavakas), that 152 moved in the society and lived by these occupations.