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The women deities have possessed more powerful position in the early 艢补颈惫补 Tantric ritual manuals, even though the real life women have only a very inferior position. The priestly class tried to frighten the woman in the name of menstruation and related impurities. As far as the concept of menstruating impurity, the religious authorities and priestly class alienated the women in all ways of social life. Most of the South Indian 艢aiv膩gmas give valuable information related to this matter. 叠峁沨补迟办腻濒辞迟迟补谤补 is the earliest 艢补颈惫补 Tantra manual that denying the worship and religious observances of woman. It also says that the liberation of woman is attained from serving her husband鈥檚 commands. It is the visible result of Brahminic patriarchal ideas like 笔腻迟颈惫谤补迟测补. These concepts were also used for confining the freedom of women. The Kerala Tantric ritual manuals also share the same view. 笔谤补测辞驳补尘补帽箩补谤墨, an earlier ritual manual in Kerala, says that a female servant (顿腻蝉颈) is gifted to a Brahmin for the removal of obstacles and impurity of temple courtyard and sanctum sanctorum.

In early 艢腻办迟补 Tantrism (7^th to 9^th centuries) women have a more powerful position equal to that of men. During this epoch, woman also participated in various ritual events like Homa, 笔奴箩补, Japa and 顿丑测腻苍补.^[1] This ritual participation gives a variety of positions to the women folk. The female ritual practitioners are divided into various categories. They are 厂腻诲丑补办墨, 驰辞驳颈苍墨, 顿奴迟墨 and 艢补办迟颈.^[2] 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈鈥檚 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补 (CE 8^th century Sanskrit drama) confirms that female practitioners had the same rights in that age.^[3] The Tantric treatises like 厂颈诲诲丑补测辞驳别艣惫补谤墨尘补迟补, 罢补苍迟谤补蝉补诲产丑腻惫补 and Par膩tri峁兣沬k膩vivara峁嘺 considered that woman are equal to men in various rituals.^[4] In 艢膩kti-tantras women also attended and participated in various orthopraxis rituals like Cakray膩ga, 笔奴箩补 and various Homas. And these 艢腻办迟补 Tantras do not mention the impurity of menstruating woman. Moreover, the 叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补迟补苍迟谤补 recommends the observances and related ritual worships in menstrual periods of a woman.^[5] Sanderson have given more attention to this fact. He evidently attests that in the early period women have participated in Tantric rituals. 骋补耻岣峚惫补丑辞 of Vakpatir膩ja and 础辫补产丑谤补尘补艣补 惭补丑腻辫耻谤腻峁嘺 illuminates the participation of women in rituals.^[6]

But the concepts of 顿奴迟墨 in 叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补迟补苍迟谤补 also states that rituals are not women centric. The diplomatic ideas of priestly class are seen in this work. 顿奴迟墨 is a common name of ritual partner. 叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补迟补苍迟谤补 or Picumata suggest that the 顿奴迟墨 has to receive the Guru鈥檚 commands, she is characterized as brilliant, and she is endowed with the auspicious features and has mastered in the sitting postures (膧蝉补苍补) of great spirit (惭补丑腻蝉补迟迟惫补). She has to infuse with the essence of Tantra, should be loyal to her Guru, deity and husband. Also she should have the power to conquere hunger, thirst and fatigue, should be always dwelling in non-duality, is undiscriminating (Nirvikalpa) and non-covetous. She well knows how to reach 厂补尘腻诲丑颈, she knows Yoga, conversant with scriptural knowledge (J帽膩j帽膩na) and practices of ascetic observances.^[7] The Mantra part of 叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补 gives more supporting documents in this context. 叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补 includes the basic rituals like ritual bathing (厂苍腻苍补), Mantric installation (狈测腻蝉补), the 罢腻濒补办补鈥檚 entering the ritual site (顿别惫腻驳腻谤补) and the performance of worship (笔奴箩补).^[8]

It can be seen that, the above definition of 顿奴迟墨 and her ritual participation is not woman centric, in fact, it is a wicked way of the priestly class to manage woman for their ritual actions and sexual observances. At this point the women Tantric practitioner is in fact an instrument of the priestly class.

In this context the observations of Judit Torozsosk is very important, she considerably notes:

鈥淚t is a quasi-universal cultural phenomenon that women are associated with impurity and danger. Their dangerous impurity can make them menacing and powerful, in the way in which Tantric goddesses and 驰辞驳颈苍墨s are depicted. As these powerful and impure goddesses and 驰辞驳颈苍墨s make their way into the pantheon of 艢腻办迟补 scriptures, actual women, whether they embody these divine females or not, also gain more presence in these works [鈥︹��.] in 艢腻办迟补 scriptures they are not only allowed to participate in rituals, but their participation as ritual partners (艢补办迟颈) is often required, even if their role can be rather instrumental.鈥�^[9]

In 艢补颈惫补 Siddh膩nta, the authors of Tantric ritual manuals consider that the menstruating woman is an impure and untouchable person and they suggest that in the period of menstruation one should not worship 艢颈惫补.^[10] 笔谤腻测补艣肠颈迟迟补蝉补尘耻肠肠测补 of 罢谤颈濒辞肠补苍补艣颈惫补 also says if the menstruation comes without her knowing, the things, which the menstruating woman (Malavadvastraya) touches at home, should be considered as polluted; they are not polluted by her mere proximity.^[11]

The concept of menstruating impurity is also related to concept of 笔腻辫补 and 笔谤腻测补艣肠颈迟迟补. The levels of impurity of menstruating women were categorized by 罢谤颈濒辞肠补苍补艣颈惫补 as per the 痴补谤峁嘺 system and the expiations are directed accordingly. if a woman touches a menstruating 艢奴诲谤补, 痴补颈艣测补 or 碍峁�a迟谤颈测补 woman, then she should perform a 碍峁沜肠丑谤补vrata and half a 碍峁沜肠丑谤补vrata respectively, from which she becomes pure. If a 痴补颈艣测补 woman touches a menstruating 碍峁�a迟谤颈测补 or a 艢奴诲谤补 woman, then she is purified in each case by a quarter of 碍峁沜肠丑谤补. If a 艢奴诲谤补 touches either of the preceding two when they are menstruating, then she is in each case purified by giving alone.^[12] 罢谤颈濒辞肠补苍补艣颈惫补 recommends various expiatory rites for contact between a menstruating woman with 颁补峁囜笉腻濒补蝉 and other low caste. And he strictly says that the place where the menstruating woman slept or ate becomes pure by applying cow-dung and the like. After taking a bath after her menstrual period she should definitely not see any other man other than her husband out of affection.^[13]

Most of the Indian philosophical systems deeply discussed the concept of liberation, the way for it and other related matters. But in real life these ideas become mere dogma and these concepts proliferate the social hierarchy and cast system. Women and the majority of the human beings are denied the equality even in front of the god. In 艢补颈惫补 Tantra, the famous Tantric manual 叠峁沨补迟办腻濒辞迟迟补谤补 strictly restricted the right of women for worshipping and doing other religious observances. It directs that in mind, speech and in action she should obey the orders of her husband. This text also states that women can acquire 笔耻峁噛腻丑补 from obeying husband鈥檚 commands. It reveals that liberation of woman is only through serving her husband.^[14]

The Kerala Tantric ritual manuals like 痴颈峁ａ箛耻-蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 and 罢补苍迟谤补辫谤腻测补艣肠颈迟迟补 the commentaries of Tantrasamuccaya like 痴颈惫补谤补峁嘺 and 痴颈尘补谤艣颈苍墨 also restrict the entering of menstruating woman in to temples. These texts direct appropriate expiations in the case of break of rule.^[15] It is observed that up to the recent time (exactly up to 1965) the entry of women folk is denied in Thiruvalla temple, as the authority of the temple was vested in the hands of an ascetic (Yogiy膩r).^[16] There are several records of expelling the lawbreaking women and of performing the due expiatory rituals for the removal of the ill-effects of the same.^[17] For instance the Thiruvalla temple document no. 86 illustrates the details of expiation related to the entering of a woman, Ve岣穟tte峁璦n by caste, in temple courtyard. The expiations like 骋辞诲腻苍补, 笔耻峁噛腻丑补 and Dravyakala艣a are performed there after expelling her. In addition to that a capital fine is also collected from her. There was a general custom in Kerala that the women are not expected to be in the sight of the ascetic people. The special worship and authority of some ascetic persons were prevalent in major temples of Kerala like Padmanabha Swami Temple at Thiruvananthapuram, Thiruvalla 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 temple, Tirupuliy奴r temple and Va峁璦kkunn膩than temple at Trissur. In Irinjalakkuda 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 temple, there is a custom that the Namputiri Brahmin ladies are not entering inside. No woman, except the children and aged, are allowed at the famous Sabarimala 艢腻蝉迟峁� temple even now. From these it is revealed that there was severe discrimination towards the women folk in principle and in practice of Kerala Tantra. Even now the field of Tantric worship in Kerala maintains a strict patriarchal system, as there is no single woman performing Tantric rites in temples.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

Judit Torzosk observes thus: 鈥淔inally, women are also entitled to perform many 艢腻办迟补 rites in the same way as men, on equal grounds. The examples demonstrate that women had the full right to perform ascetic observances initiatory worship to use the power of a deity, including pantheon worship combined with visualization, Mantra recitation and fire offerings. Although it happens that women are seen as less able to perform some rites than men, it also occurs that a rite or Mantra is said to be more efficient for them.鈥� 鈥淲oman in Early 艢腻办迟补 Tantras: 顿奴迟墨, 驰辞驳颈苍墨 and 厂腻诲丑补办墨鈥�, Tantric Traditions in Theory and Practices, Cracow Indological studies, Vol. XVI, p. 357.

[2]:

Ibid, p. 342.

[3]:

For the 驰辞驳颈苍墨s 碍补辫腻濒补办耻峁囜笉补濒腻 and Saud膩ma峁嚹� are said as performed similar sets of rituals and also possess the ability to fly, see 9.52 and 5.29.

[4]:

厂颈诲诲丑补测辞驳别艣惫补谤墨尘补迟补, 25.2, 罢补苍迟谤补蝉补诲产丑腻惫补, 18.31, 3.224-25.

[5]:

叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补迟补苍迟谤补 or Picumata, 24.8-9.

[6]:

骋补耻岣峚惫补丑辞 of Vakpatir膩ja (5.319) and 础辫补产丑谤补尘补艣补 惭补丑腻辫耻谤腻峁嘺 (79.7.5). Also see Sanderson, A., 鈥淭he 艢补颈惫补 Literature鈥�, p. 6, fn. 22.

[7]:

Csaba Kiss, The 叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补迟补苍迟谤补, p. 256.

[8]:

Ibid., ch. 45. The minute details of the sexual ritual are given here.

[9]:

Judit, op.cit., p. 362.

[10]:

笔谤腻测补艣肠颈迟迟补samuccaya of 罢谤颈濒辞肠补苍补艣颈惫补, 499.

[11]:

Ibid., 503.

[12]:

Ibid., 509.

[13]:

Ibid., 523.

[14]:

产丑补谤迟谤腻箩帽腻辫腻濒补苍补峁� 办腻谤测补峁� 办补谤尘补峁嚹� 尘补苍补蝉腻 驳颈谤腻 |
辫奴箩腻惫谤补迟腻诲颈办补峁� 迟测补办迟惫腻 bhartr膩j帽膩峁� 艣ilas膩rcayet ||
na bhartra sad峁浥沷 vatsa 蝉谤墨峁嚹佱箖 vai t膩rako 驳耻谤耻岣� |
dharm膩rthak膩mamok峁�e峁�u bhart膩 vai ko gururvidu岣� ||
bhartr膩j帽膩p膩lan膩ddharma艣c膩rtha峁� bhartr膩j帽ato labhet |
bhart峁泃a艣ca bhavetk膩mo mok峁�o vai bhart峁泂evan膩t ||
别惫补峁� 箩帽腻迟惫腻 prayatnena bhartr膩j帽膩峁� naiva la峁単hayet | 鈥�. || 叠峁沨补迟办腻濒辞迟迟补谤补tantra, 37.111-114.

[15]:

ete峁Ｄ佱箖 cet 蝉迟谤颈测腻 sp峁涐梗峁璷 moh膩dv膩 yadi 办腻尘补迟补岣� |
辫奴谤惫辞办迟腻 苍颈峁�k峁泃颈岣� 办腻谤测腻 艣别峁�a峁� br膩hma峁嘺bhojanam ||
god膩na帽ca puna岣� kury膩dgavyasn膩na峁� ca yuktita岣� |
br膩hma峁噛膩 coram膩rge峁嘺 sp峁涐梗峁璭 tu sadhus奴dane ||
蝉苍补辫补苍补峁� k膩rayecchakty膩 br膩hma峁嚹乶膩帽ca bhojanam | 痴颈峁ａ箛耻-蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, 28.40-42. Also vide 罢补苍迟谤补辫谤腻测补艣肠颈迟迟补, p. 20.
prasave narapa艣v膩dermara峁噀 pu峁�pit膩dibhi岣� |
ca峁囜笉膩l膩dyai艣ca 艣ayite tadvadb膩hy膩di峁�u tvapi || Tantrasamuccaya, 痴颈惫补谤补峁嘺, 10.6.

[16]:

Unnikrishnan Nair, P., ed., Thiruvalla Granthavari, p. 91.

[17]:

Idem.