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According to E.B. Cowell, since the later Vedic period, the doctrine of Metempsychosis has played an important part in the history of the national character and religious ideas that we need not be surprised to find that Buddhist literature from the earliest times has always included the ages of the past as an authentic background to founder鈥檚 historical life as Gautama. 闯腻迟补办补 legends occur even in Canonical 笔颈峁璦办补蝉; thus the Sukhavih膩ri 闯腻迟补办补 and the Tittira 闯腻迟补办补, which are found in the Culla Vagga (volume 6); and there are several other examples.^[1]

1. The author of 闯腻迟补办补

The Buddhists believe that the 闯腻迟补办补 verses were uttered by the Buddha himself and hence these were placed in historical context. Originally, the 闯腻迟补办补s represent a popular collection of tales and fables, by adopting these legends and giving them Buddhist guise Early Buddhism acquired a simple and effective means of popularizing the faith.^[2]

There is no reason to doubt that the Buddha himself made use of popular tales in preaching to the people. We found it in the Mah膩sudassana Sutta of the 顿墨驳丑补-狈颈办腻测补^[3] and later on in the book of T.W. Rhys Davids. They mentioned about dialogues of the Lord Buddha preaching the Mah膩sudassana 闯腻迟补办补. Sutta no. 95 is one of many such instances to be recorded in the 笔腻濒颈 Canon. It is certain that monks and preachers also did so. This was, indeed, a widespread practice throughout the length and breadth of India. The preachers of all religious sects there always took advantage of the native passion for storytelling and story-hearing, and made extensive use of stories to preach. They ventured frequently to take fables, fairy tales and amusing anecdotes from the rich store house of popular tales or from secular literature, altering and adapting them wherever and whenever necessary to suit their aims.

The Buddha teaches both by 蝉奴迟谤补蝉 and stanzas and by legends and 闯腻迟补办补s. Again it is mentioned in the same work that the 罢补迟丑腻驳补迟补, knowing the differences in faculties of his numerous hearers, preaches in many different ways, 鈥榯ells many tales, amusing, agreeable, both instructive and pleasant, tales by means of which all beings not only become pleased with the law in this present life, but also after death reach happy states鈥�.^[4]

According to T.W. Rhys David, the edition of the 闯腻迟补办补 by Fausb枚ll is an edition of the commentary written probably in the fifth century CE by and an unknown author, who, as Childers thinks, was Buddhaghosa. Whether this commentary was actually written by Buddhaghosa or not, the numerous 闯腻迟补办补 quoted or narrated by Buddhaghosa in his commentaries show a close agreement with the commentary edited by Fausb枚ll.^[5]

It has been shown that the word commentary, the prose of the framework, and the prose of the stories are all the work of the same author.^[6] E.B. Cowell confessed that he has no confidence in their historical credibility.

However, Burlingame finds, as also does Winternitz, the arguments of Rhys Davids and Fausb枚ll convincing lie adds that the strongest argument of all is, however, that the 闯腻迟补办补 commentary and the Dhammapada commentary, differ so widely in language and style from the genuine works of Buddhaghosa as to make it in the highest degree improbable that he is the author of either of them. 鈥淏uddhaghosa is not the author of the 闯腻迟补办补 Commentary or of the Dhammapada commentary鈥� he emphatically states. 鈥淭heir authors are unknown.鈥�^[7]

Some scholars are of the opinion that these 闯腻迟补办补 驳腻迟丑腻蝉 are of pre-Buddhist origin and were the work of many authors, chiefly non-Buddhist, though a compiler may have altered and even added new verse here and there, while recasting the whole text.^[8]

Another text in Buddhist literature that derives heavily from the 闯腻迟补办补s is the Sanskrit work 闯腻迟补办补m膩l膩 (meaning garland of birth stories) by 膧ryas奴ra. A famous Sanskrit collection from approximately the fourth century CE, arranges the bulk of its thirty four 闯腻迟补办补s,^[9] it is a work of high literary standards. Stories similar to 闯腻迟补办补s occur in the Vedas. Some of the 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺蝉 and 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉 are simply narrative stories. In many cases, the context, the style or the core theme of the story is altered. In some cases the same story is told in different forms by different authors.

It is unlikely Aesop and other early storytellers had copies of the 闯腻迟补办补s handy. And it鈥檚 unlikely that the monks and scholars who compiled the 笔腻濒颈 Canon more than 2,000 years ago ever heard of Aesop. Perhaps the stories were spread by ancient travelers. Perhaps they were built from fragments of the first human stories, told by our paleolithic ancestors.^[10] 闯腻迟补办补 and similar other stories travelled far and wide by word of mouth along caravan routes. Many 闯腻迟补办补 stories have appeared in many other languages and media. Retellings of the stories may contain significant amendments to suit different host cultures.

India has always had a rich tradition of oral storytelling and preachers from various religious sects have made extensive use of stories in their sermons. Buddha was no exception. According to folklore, the Lord Buddha often cited examples from his past lives in order to explain the right conduct. Since he told the stories according to the demand of a give situation, he never gave a sequence to these stories. It is quite uncertain when they were put together in a systematic form.

The oral storytelling which technique is made use of by various religious preachers to spread their beliefs. According to folklore, Buddha often recited stories from his past lives to teach his disciples the right conduct of life which came to be compiled as the 闯腻迟补办补s. Therefore, the 闯腻迟补办补s are Buddhist parables and tales of Buddha in his previous lives which included incarnations in the form of a snake, a rabbit, a swan, a fish, a quail, an ape, a woodpecker, a deer and an elephant.^[11] The extensive narrative work known as the 闯腻迟补办补峁�峁環ava峁囜箛an膩 from Fausb枚ll鈥檚 edition of the work and more often as 闯腻迟补办补峁�峁環akath膩 in other editions is the work of an unknown Sinhalese monk.^[12] It is a commentary or compilation of the fifth century CE.

E.J. Thomas thought that the Sinhalese text itself, upon which it was based, 鈥渨as probably a translation of an older 笔腻濒颈 work, and as several of the tales have been preserved in other parts of the Canon in a more ancient style.鈥�^[13] 闯腻迟补办补 tales are not considered Buddhavacana, i.e., generally, 罢丑别谤补惫腻诲补 Buddhists do not accord them the authority of being the actual word of the Buddha, and Sri Lanka orthodoxy maintains that they are not canonical writings. However, in Burma and elsewhere they are included as part of the 笔腻濒颈 canon, and these tales have been among the more popular and influential segments of Buddhist literature, irrespective of their heterodoxy.

2. The Existence of 闯腻迟补办补 Tales

In any case it is conclusive as to the existence of a collection of 闯腻迟补办补 at a very early date. The text of the 闯腻迟补办补 book, as now received among the Southern Buddhists, consists, as will be seen from the translation, not only of the stories, but of an elaborate commentary, containing a detailed explanation of the verse or verses which occur in each of the stories. According to one tradition, the 闯腻迟补办补 stories composed in 笔腻濒颈 in India were taken to Ceylon by Mahindra about 250 BCE and the commentary translated there into Sinhalese and again translated into 笔腻濒颈 in fifth century CE by Buddhaghosa.^[14] The accuracy of this tradition has been discussed by T.W. Rhys Davids in the introduction to the first volume of his Buddhist Birth Stories.

But, A.K. Warder said that the 闯腻迟补办补s are the precursors to the various legendary biographies of the Buddha, which were composed at later dates.^[15] Although many 闯腻迟补办补s were written from an early period, which describe previous lives of the Buddha, very little biographical material about Gautama鈥檚 own life has been recorded.

Whatever else this may prove with regard to the way in which the ancient Canon was preserved, it shows at all events that 闯腻迟补办补s existed before the 痴别蝉腻濒颈 Council as an integral portion of the sacred Canon, and we learn at the same time that it was possible even then to compose new chapters of that canon, and probably also to add new 闯腻迟补办补 stories.^[16]

Another tradition holds that in Ceylon the original 闯腻迟补办补 book comprised of the 骋腻迟丑腻蝉 and a commentary that contained the stories written in early Sinhalese was found. This was later translated into 笔腻濒颈 about 430 CE by Buddhaghosa and after that the Sinhalese original book was lost. But there might have existed as a book containing 闯腻迟补办补 tales in India too at least by the third and second centuries BCE. Some of the stories are of pre-Buddhist origin ranging down to the fifth Century CE.^[17] The 驳腻迟丑腻蝉 are undoubtedly old, and they necessarily imply the previous existence of the stories, though not perhaps in the exact words in which we now possess them.^[18]

Several scholars found the 闯腻迟补办补 panels in sculpture in many places such as Bharhut and Sanchi. At Bharhut has opened a line of inquiry and continued by Foucher and Barua. Foucher described the 闯腻迟补办补 stories depicted in 罢辞谤补峁嘺 (4 gates) reliefs at Sanchi. Barua gave an accurate identification of the 闯腻迟补办补 at Bharhut with the 闯腻迟补办补 text. Winternitz, who observed the depiction of 闯腻迟补办补s on the stupas at Bharhut and Sanchi, commented that the sculptors have followed the prose version and so they are of pre-Buddhist origin.^[19] The 闯腻迟补办补Tales form part of the Sutta 笔颈峁璦办补 of the 笔腻濒颈 canon, whereas the Vinaya 笔颈峁璦办补 was particularly concerned with monastic discipline. The Sutta 笔颈峁璦办补 focuses not only on the teachings of the Buddha but also on the lives of the Buddha and his disciples. There is also a long introduction to the 闯腻迟补办补 commentaries known as the 狈颈诲腻苍补办补迟丑腻 that is primarily a biography of the Buddha. The 闯腻迟补办补 tradition appears to take on something like its present form in Sri Lanka sometime between the beginning of the Common Era and the fifth century CE.^[20]

What we possess is the 笔腻濒颈 text of the 闯腻迟补办补 as it has been preserved in Ceylon. It is in this commentary alone that the text of the 闯腻迟补办补s has come down to us. This text has been edited by Fausb枚ll. He has distinguished in his edition between three component elements, the tale, the frame, and the verbal interpretation. This text, of which the beginning was translated in 1880 by T.W Rhys Davids, is now being translated by R. Chalmers, W.R.D. Rouse et al, and the first volume of their translation has appeared in 1895 under the able editorship of E.B. Cowell.^[21]

In the same century, Kern published 闯腻迟补办补m膩l膩 in the year 1891. Later J.S. Speryer in the year 1895 translated 膧ryas奴ra鈥檚 闯腻迟补办补m膩l膩 (garland of birth stories) into English. He says that the 膧ryas奴ra鈥檚 闯腻迟补办补m膩l膩 has higher pretension and is in fact a kind of 办腻惫测补 style, a work of art and it was used by the Northern Buddhists, whereas the 笔腻濒颈 闯腻迟补办补 is in simple prose style, followed by the Buddhists of south India. Similarly, three decades later, the Royal Asiatic Society published the translation of another great work namely 础惫补诲腻苍补办补濒辫补濒补迟腻 in the year 1920.^[22]

The Western scholars began to draw the attention to the form of 闯腻迟补办补s that was raised quite early in the last decades of the nineteen century. They first came into existence.^[23] However, the 闯腻迟补办补 which belong to different periods ranging in date from the early sixth century BCE (pre-Buddhist period) down to the fifth century CE give a comprehensive picture of the contemporary Indian society besides providing us a harmonious and a homogeneous profile of the pre-Buddhist India.^[24] The Sutta and Vinaya 笔颈峁璦办补蝉 are generally accepted as at least older than the Council of 痴别蝉腻濒颈 and thus 闯腻迟补办补 legends must have been always recognised in Buddhist literature.^[25]

3. The origin of 闯腻迟补办补

The 闯腻迟补办补 book was originally in verse alone, to which the recite, in the oral tradition of the time, added explanation. It is thought by Buddhist to be a compilation of the highest significance for social and literary history.^[26] Although many 闯腻迟补办补s can be regarded as being non-Buddhist, or even pre-Buddhist, there are some which are certainly Buddhist. These show clearly that the Buddhists added material of their own to the 闯腻迟补办补 collection.^[27]

On the whole, the best description of the 闯腻迟补办补s is found in Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend,^[28] which defines them as:

鈥渁 collection of 驳腻迟丑腻蝉 arranged in 22 sections, according to the number of stanzas forming a 闯腻迟补办补, the 闯腻迟补办补s of each section progressively containing an additional 驳腻迟丑腻. Thus, those in the first section contain one stanza, those in the fifth, five, etc. These 驳腻迟丑腻蝉 are embedded in a prose commentary, which consists of a story of the present explaining why Buddha is telling the tale of the past, followed by the 闯腻迟补办补 (the 驳腻迟丑腻蝉) or story of the past, a commentary of the 驳腻迟丑腻蝉, and an integration of the two parts. They include fables, Marchen, moral tales, maxims and legends. More than a half of the 闯腻迟补办补 stories are not of Buddhist origin.鈥�

Therefore such stories are not only pre-Buddhist in origin but are very old. Thus the 闯腻迟补办补 system is based on handing down tales or some legends in prose, with the conversation only being in verse, which itself are pre-Buddhist. Such tales preserve the original form of the Indian folklore.鈥�^[29]

The commentary to these gives for each 闯腻迟补办补, or birth stories, an account of the event in Gotama鈥檚 life which led to his first telling that particular story. Both text and commentary were then handed down, in the 笔腻濒颈 language in which they were composed, to the time of the Council of Patna (held in or about the year 250 BCE); and they were carried in following year to Ceylon by the great missionary Mahinda, the son of Asoka.^[30] The commentary was written down in Singhalese, the 膧ryan dialect spoken in Ceylon, and was retranslated into its present from in the 笔腻濒颈 language in the fifth century of our era. But the text of the 闯腻迟补办补 stories themselves has been throughout preserved in its original 笔腻濒颈 form.^[31]

It is a classification according to their form and contents. It seems that all these diverse types of Buddhist literature were already in existence when the canon was compiled in its present form. The seventh 补峁単补 is the 闯腻迟补办补 (stories of the Former Births of Buddha).^[32]

The stories found in the 闯腻迟补办补 have been found in numerous other languages and media many of them being translations from the 笔腻濒颈 versions, but others are instead derived from vernacular traditions prior to the 笔腻濒颈 compositions. Sanskrit and Tibetan 闯腻迟补办补 stories tend to maintain the Buddhist morality of their 笔腻濒颈 equivalents, but re-tellings of the stories in Persian and other languages sometimes contain significant amendments to suit their respective cultures.^[33]

In the sixth century, some of the stories were translated to Persian and this translation was later retranslated to Greek, Latin and Hebrew.^[34]

According to an Italian scholar, the origin of several of stories of al-Sindbad and Arabian Nights could be traced from the 闯腻迟补办补 tales.^[35] Although in many instances it is possible that these stories migrated from India to the West, it is not impossible that in others Western movies were brought to India.^[36] Generally, the 闯腻迟补办补 stories have disseminated from India to become part of the world鈥檚 folk-literature, in numerous variations, with the 笔腻濒颈 recensions representing one cultural and religious notion of what the stories 鈥渙ught鈥� to be.

Several 闯腻迟补办补 stories can be shown to be old because they have counter-parts in Jain canonical texts, and sometimes the similarity between them is so close that one version can be used to restore the text of the other.^[37] The Buddhist or Jain orientation is very clearly marked in these stories. As the term 闯腻迟补办补 implies, these tales cut across generations in their continuity of themes and even characters. The rebirth motif is also dominant in the 闯腻迟补办补 tales and the moral tone is never left obscure.^[38] They read like parables to teach certain truths, and are never meant for leisurely entertainment.

There are also several 闯腻迟补办补 stories in the 惭补丑腻惫补蝉迟耻 which do not have a parallel in the 笔腻濒颈 collection. The 顿墨辫补惫补峁僺补 tells of the 惭补丑腻蝉补峁僩丑颈办补蝉 making changes in the canon after their separation from the Therav膩dins and states that they rejected a portion of the 闯腻迟补办补. This presumably means that the contents of the 闯腻迟补办补 collections of the two sects differed, doubtless because they both added to their collections after the schism.^[39]

In the seventeenth century, there are notable examples mentioned historical records and other sources of eminent exponents of the 闯腻迟补办补s, great teachers and renowned preachers. La Fontaine the great exponent of

The fable literature created his own land mark. It was the fashion in those days that generally literary men and women used to meet in their salons and its origin to the various 闯腻迟补办补s and their transformations, imitations, adaptations and other various literary.^[40] This tradition has come down to the present day. Thus it is that the temple and monastery have continued to be a powerful base of support for the propagation and popularization of the 闯腻迟补办补s.

There are several 闯腻迟补办补s scattered throughout the canonical 笔腻濒颈 literature as well as the Sanskrit Buddhist literature and even outside the literature of Buddhism, many of the stories of the 闯腻迟补办补 Book occur in the 笔补帽肠补迟补苍迟谤补, 碍补迟丑腻蝉补谤颈迟蝉腻驳补谤补 and other Indian story books. Some stories have parallels in the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补and in the 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺, the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉,^[41] and still others in Jaina literature. There are also a large number of 闯腻迟补办补 tales in the non-canonical 笔腻濒颈 literature, notably in the 惭颈濒颈苍诲补辫补帽丑补.^[42] Many 闯腻迟补办补s occur in the 惭补丑腻惫补蝉迟耻 in prose as well as in verse in mixed Sanskrit. Some of them are variants of 笔腻濒颈 闯腻迟补办补s while others are not found in the 笔腻濒颈 collection.

Some 闯腻迟补办补 stories can be found in Jain literature, such as the story of Isisinga in Suyakadanga, which is the Nalini 闯腻迟补办补. They are found in even the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补, for example 峁歴颈蝉谤颈苍驳补耻辫补办丑测腻苍补. The literature of countries such as Persia, China, Arabia, Italy, Greece, Britain and Japan have borrowed ideas and themes from the 闯腻迟补办补 and similar other stories.

There is a well-known reference to the 闯腻迟补办补s asa book of the Khuddaka 狈颈办腻测补 in the Cullaniddesawhere a collection of 500 闯腻迟补办补sis mentioned. This collection, in the opinion of a reputed scholar, appears to be earlier than the scriptural basis of the Buddhist sculptures at Bharhut and Sanchi and hence earlier than the sculptures themselves. It was certainly later than that of the suttanta 闯腻迟补办补s scattered throughout the first four 狈颈办腻测补s.^[43]

Despite the large number of stories found in the 闯腻迟补办补 collection, it is clear that it by no means includes all the 闯腻迟补办补 stories which existed in North India in the early days of Buddhism. There are stories found elsewhere in the 笔腻濒颈 canon. Asvaghosa in this work draws upon the 笔腻濒颈 闯腻迟补办补 called the Samgamavacara which tells the identical story though in a shorter form. The existence of this technique for overcoming desire, the instruction to 鈥�fight passion with passion鈥�, in such an early 闯腻迟补办补 tale, suggests that it was certainly understood by, and perhaps practiced by some of the earliest followers of the tradition.^[44] Which are technically 闯腻迟补办补 stories because they purport to tell of the Buddha in an earlier birth, and conclude with an identification of the characters, and are nevertheless not found in the collection.

The 闯腻迟补办补 legends occur in the Vinaya 笔颈峁璦办补, too. For example, the 闯腻迟补办补 (No.10); Tittira 闯腻迟补办补 (No.37) are to be found in the Chulla-Vagga

(vii.1; and vi.6, respectively). Further, the 颁补谤颈测补辫颈峁璦办补, a book of the Sutta-笔颈峁璦办补, contains thirty-five 闯腻迟补办补s in verse-form. Besides, several 闯腻迟补办补s

exist in the canonical texts but not included in the 闯腻迟补办补 collection. Further, the 厂补尘补苍迟补辫补蝉腻诲颈办腻 makes a reference to the 闯腻迟补办补 狈颈办腻测补; and the 顿墨驳丑补bh膩峁嘺kas, i.e., those who recited the suttas or discourses of the 顿墨驳丑补 狈颈办腻测补 included the 闯腻迟补办补 in the Abhidhamma 笔颈峁璦办补. There are also 惭补丑腻测腻苍补 闯腻迟补办补 stories such as 痴测腻驳丑谤墨, Dhammaso峁囜笉aka and Seta Gandha Hasti which do not appear in 笔腻濒颈 at all.

An analysis of the more than 500 闯腻迟补办补 stories of the 笔腻濒颈 collection as we have it shows that it contains a wide variety of different types of verse composition. Many of them seem to be un-Buddhist in origin. Some of these stories are also found in Aesop鈥檚 fables and other European literature and the problem of their inter-dependence has been much discussed. Representations of some of them are found in the reliefs on the Bharhut stupa, showing that they had already become popular by the second century B.C.

4. The 闯腻迟补办补 Commentary

In the post-canonical tradition of the Therav膩dins the 闯腻迟补办补 tradition culminated with the appearance of the 闯腻迟补办补 Commentary in Ceylon in the fifth century CE.^[45] There is no doubt that a Sinhalese commentary in all likelihood, included verses in the original 笔腻濒颈 and was translated or rather recast and reworked into 笔腻濒颈, formed the basis of the 笔腻濒颈 compilation.

The 闯腻迟补办补 Commentary itself is a collection of 547 stories, each containing an account of the life of Gotama the Buddha during some incarnation in one of his previous existences as a Bodhisattva, an animal hero, a being destined to Enlightenment. That is the role he played before he became Buddha, the Enlightened One, The number of such 鈥渂irths鈥� does not correspond to exactly 547 stories, since some of the tales occur more than once in a different setting, or in a variant version, and occasionally several stories are included in one birth.^[46]

Much of the material, however, is demonstrably many centuries older. The 闯腻迟补办补 forms the tenth book of the Khuddaka 狈颈办腻测补 of the Sutta 笔颈峁璦办补. In the 笔腻濒颈 Canon it also forms one of the nine 鈥�补峁単补s鈥� or divisions of the Buddha鈥檚 teachings, grouped according to the subject matter Like the 鲍诲腻苍补 (鈥渧erses of uplift, fervent utterances鈥�) and Itivuttaka (鈥渁s it was said鈥�) of the same canonical collection, the 闯腻迟补办补 is the name of an actual work. Although the canonical book of the 闯腻迟补办补 contains only the verses, it is certain that from the earliest times, there must have been handed down an oral commentary, giving the stories in prose.^[47]

It is not possible to say exactly when the 闯腻迟补办补s in their present form came into existence, nor how many of them were among the original number. What can he definitely stated is that they must have come into being and continued to grow over a considerable time before they reached their final form. In the time of the Cullaniddesa, there appear to have been 500 闯腻迟补办补s, for reference is made to 辫补帽肠补-闯腻迟补办补-satani. Five hundred was the number seen by Xuanzang too. One is not certain, however, if the reference made was to a round number or an exact one.

Many scholars subscribe to the view that not all the stories contained in the 闯腻迟补办补 collection are 鈥淏uddhist鈥� in a somewhat restricted view of the term, or even that they emanated from a Buddhist milieu. Some of these birth-stories are patently Buddhistic and depend for their point on some custom or idea peculiar to Buddhism, but many are said to be pieces gathered from folklore, 鈥渨hich have floated about the world for ages as the stray waif of literature and are liable everywhere to the appropriated by any casual claimant. This is an interesting observation. It is however, worth noting that no proprietary rights have been claimed by Buddhists for these stories, apart from the claim that, by and large, they are tales with Buddhist content and flavour and that Buddhist narrators and writers have invested them with a particular structure and form. Such appropriation of stories from a common stock by Buddhist samanas in the course of their wanderings is therefore quite possible and is only to be expected, when one considers the historical and cultural context in which the stories originated. Equally important is it to recognize the fact that 闯腻迟补办补 tales have been, over the centuries, appropriated by storytellers belonging to far-flung regions to which they had migrated. They have been used by different authors to achieve their special objectives.

5. The number of 闯腻迟补办补s

The tenth book of the Khuddaka 狈颈办腻测补 of the 笔腻濒颈 罢颈辫颈峁璦办补 is called 闯腻迟补办补 which is supposed to contain, by definition, tales of the Buddha鈥檚 former births. This canonical book of 闯腻迟补办补 comprises 6653 verses, constituting 547 闯腻迟补办补s.^[48] As of today, there are a total of 547 extant 闯腻迟补办补s arranged roughly by increasing number of verses. But there are indications that the actual number of 闯腻迟补办补s could be 550. According to Oskar von Hinuber, only the last 50 were clear to understand without any explanation. Folklorists are interested in these explanations in the form of short stories.^[49]

The 闯腻迟补办补s have been grouped under twenty-two 苍颈辫腻迟补蝉, depending on the number of verses in each 闯腻迟补办补, e.g. the 闯腻迟补办补s in the 贰办补苍颈辫腻迟补 contains one verse each, those in the 叠耻办补苍颈辫腻迟补 two verses each and so on. As the 苍颈辫腻迟补蝉 proceed, the 闯腻迟补办补s contained therein grow more and more lengthy. But this principle of naming the 苍颈辫腻迟补蝉, depending on the number of verses has not been adhered to uniformly. In the present editions of the 闯腻迟补办补 as well as in the 闯腻迟补办补峁�峁環akath膩, there are more exceptions than consistency. As for instance, the tenth 苍颈辫腻迟补 is called the Dasaka苍颈辫腻迟补, i.e. each of the 闯腻迟补办补s is supposed to contain ten verses only; but in fact, quite a few of them contain many more.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

J.v. 232.

[2]:

B. Subrahmanyam, 闯腻迟补办补s in South Indian Art, Delhi: BKP, 2005: 19.

[3]:

Maurice Walshe (trans.), 鈥�Mahasudassana Sutta: The Great Splendour A King鈥檚 Renunciation鈥�. In The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the 顿墨驳丑补 狈颈办腻测补, Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1996: 279鈥�290.

[4]:

A.S. Kulasuriya, Op. Cit.11.

[5]:

B.C. Law, A History of Pali Literature, Delhi: Abhishek Prakashan, 2007: 220.

[6]:

K.R. Norman, A History of Indian Literature, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1983: 78.

[7]:

A.S. Kulasuriya, Op. Cit.13.

[8]:

B. Subrahmanyam, 闯腻迟补办补s in Buddhist Thought and Art, Vol. II. Delhi: BKP, 2009: 507.

[9]:

Reiko Ohunma, 鈥槾衬宄俨拱觳光��. In Encyclopedia of Buddhism Vol. 1, ed. Robert E. Buswell, Jr, USA:Macmillan Reference, 2004: 400鈥�402.

[10]:

Rafe Martin, The Hungry Tigress: Buddhist Myths, Legends, and 闯腻迟补办补 Tales, USA: Yello Moon Press, 1999: 20.

[11]:

Christopher Chapple, Op. Cit. 22.

[12]:

Sadhanchandra Sarkar, A Study on the 闯腻迟补办补s and the 础惫补诲腻苍补蝉, Critical and Comparative, Volume 1. Saraswat Library, 1981: 21.

[13]:

A.S. Kulasuriya, Op. Cit. 12.

[14]:

B. Subrahmanyam, Op. Cit. 20.

[15]:

A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2004: 332.

[16]:

J.S. Speryer, Op. Cit. xiii.

[17]:

B. Subrahmanyam, Op. Cit. 20.

[18]:

J. Vol. I: xxiv.

[19]:

A.P. Bell, Didactic Narration: 闯腻迟补办补 Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of 闯腻迟补办补 Representations in China, Munster: Kunstgeschichte, 2000:36.

[20]:

Laurie Cozad, Sacred Snakes: Orthodox Images of Indian Snake Worship, USA: The Davies Group Publishers, 2004: 82.

[21]:

J.S. Speryer, Op. Cit. xiv.

[22]:

B. Subrahmanyam, Jatakas in South Indian Art, Delhi: BKP, 2005: preface.

[23]:

A.S. Kulasuriya, Op. Cit.8.

[24]:

B. Subrahmanyam, 闯腻迟补办补s in Buddhist Thought and Art, Vol. II. Delhi: BKP, 2009: 507.

[25]:

E.B. Cowell, The 闯腻迟补办补, Vol. I鈥揑I, 2005: xxi-xxii.

[26]:

Lucien Stryk. World of the Buddha: A Reader. Doubleday, 1969: 2.

[27]:

K.R. Norman, Op. Cit. 81.

[28]:

Maria Leach and Jerome Fried, Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend, Harper and Row, 1984: 40.

[29]:

B. Subrahmanyam, 闯腻迟补办补s in Buddhist Thought and Art, Vol. I. Delhi: BKP, 2009: 26.

[30]:

H. Parker, Ancient Ceylon, New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1999: 27鈥�28.

[31]:

E.A. Reed, Primitive Buddhism, Its Origin and Teachings, Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Co, 1896: 45鈥�46.

[32]:

B. Subrahmanyam, 闯腻迟补办补s in Buddhist Thought and Art, Vol. I. Delhi: BKP, 2009: 27.

[33]:

V. S. Bhaskar. Faith and Philosophy of Buddhism. Delhi: Kalpaz Publications, 2009: 104鈥�105.

[34]:

A. S, Geden, 鈥楯osaphat, Barlaam and鈥�. In Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Part 14, eds. James Hastings and A. Selbie, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2003: 567鈥�569.

[35]:

Shanti Lal Nagar, 闯腻迟补办补s in Indian Art, Parimal Publications, 1993: 41.

[36]:

A.S. Kulasuriya, Op. Cit. 11.

[37]:

K.R. Norman, Op. Cit. 82.

[38]:

K.A. Panicker, Indian Narratology, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 2003: 97.

[39]:

K.R. Norman, Op. Cit. 84.

[40]:

Ashfaq Ali, Bhopal, Past and Present: A Brief History of Bhopal from the Hoary Past upto the Present Time, Jai Bharat Publication House, 1969: 28. See, The Maha Bodhi Volume 78.

[41]:

B.C. Law, A History of 笔腻濒颈 Literature. Delhi: Abhishek Prakashan, 2007: 214鈥�215.

[42]:

A.S. Kulasuriya, Op. Cit. 10.

[43]:

Nalinaksha Dutt, Buddhist Sects in India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998: 224.

[44]:

Catherine Benton, God of Desire: Tales of Kamadeva in Sanskrit Story Literature, USA: State University of New York Press, 2006: 159.

[45]:

Frank E. Reynolds, 鈥楾he Many Lives of Buddha: A Study of Sacred Biography and Theravada Tradition鈥�. In The Biographical Process: Studies in the History and Psychology of Religion, eds. Frank Reynolds and Donald Capps, Hungary: Mouton & Co, 1976: 42.

[46]:

A.S. Kulasuriya, Op. Cit. 13.

[47]:

Naomi Appleton, 闯腻迟补办补 Stories in 罢丑别谤补惫腻诲补 Buddhism: Narrating the Bodhisatta Path, England:Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2010: 60.

[48]:

Satkari Mukhopadhyaya. Op. Cit. 1809.

[49]:

Robert Chalmers, The 闯腻迟补办补: Volumes 1 & 2. Forgotten Books, 2007: vii.